Peter Hunt argues that 'while (children's) books reflect the Essay

Peter Hunt argues that 'while (children's) books reflect the underlying preoccupations of a culture, the most notable ones also - Essay Example The emergence of newer varieties of fictional historicism is related, partly, with the attempt to regain cultural representation for adolescents, blacks, and minority groups. As a result, these social objectives are connected to the recovery of mistreated literary works, such as those that have never been regarded deserving of scholarly attention (Ringrose 2009). As Peter Hunt argues, literary works for children that are constantly recognised are those that undermine or challenge adult perceptions and beliefs of the period in which they are written. Thus, revolutionary children’s literature ridicules adults and adult-recognised organisations like the school and the church. By challenging the adult world and giving importance to a world where in children build their own values, these literary works are usually contentious and controversial. In this literature, most significantly, children have control, such as control over their own identities, their environments, and adults (R ingrose 2009). However, due to the diversity within the cultural framework of children’s literature, it is hard to oversimplify the components which inspire these works in children’s literature. ... Narrated through the perspectives of various characters, the story manages to maintain an unbiased and impartial standpoint on the lifestyle and culture of the teenage addicts and their different, mainly failed, efforts to stop the drug addiction. The series of events which encompass Tar and Gemma in the novel reveal the period’s fear of the influences of modern society on childhood values. The conflict in human relations, mainly depicted in Gemma’s family, seem to intimidate Romantic notions of childhood. The child, separated from the nuclear family’s ideals and the faiths of established religion, dominated by worldly interests and the explosion of sexualised, ‘impure’ depictions of the body, has become a menacing, irrepressible force (Flewit 2009). Adolescents, such as Burgess’s characters, can be offenders or drug addicts and, per se, represent a society which is wild and unruly. Although there is a growth in children’s literature, l ike Junk, which discusses these issues, they are frequently criticised for their hard realism, illustrating further current anxieties that children will become ruined adolescents. The moralising preoccupation of Junk that takes on a direct relationship between children’s literature and deviant behaviour discards the effort, on Burgess’s part, to encourage children to think and act independently. It is the difficult topic of sex and vice in children’s literature which has been the most challenging for grownups. The Other Side of the Truth by Beverly Naidoo Beverly Naidoo strives to make sense of the impacts of apartheid through the story of Sade and Femi Solaja in The Other Side of the Truth. The core notion of this

The Dangers of Alcohol Used Minors Essay Example for Free

The Dangers of Alcohol Used Minors Essay â€Å"Plastered, Hammered, Wasted, Drunk, Lifted.. These are all terms my friends use on any given Friday or Saturday night to ask if I want to party for the weekend! When we do get to parties, kids are doing keg stands (Where someone holds your legs up in the air, you grab the keg with both hands, and someone else feeds your beer through the hose upside down. ) We play quarters, beer pong, and flip cup. The drinking games are endless as in the alcohol available to teens. â€Å"Hey Ryan, let’s go out tonight, find a few girls, and throwback a few brewskies! Temptation to drink alcohol as a minor is everywhere! Some corner stores sell it to us, older brothers and sisters get it for us, or we can just wait for someone who looks cool to go in and buy it for us. Before having to do the research on teens and alcohol, I truly did not think it was that big of a deal. I though alcohol was acceptable because everyone does it casually and in order to be popular, you want to fit in at the parties. I believed I could drink 6 beers and 2 shots and probably arrive home safely. I’ve seen kids drink 11-17 beers and still be standing. The amount teens are drinking is truly scary. I have even seen kids get behind the wheel, not realizing how intoxicated they were until they had to get out of the car. These things all frighten me. I know my mom would completely devastated if she knew I was drinking and driving. I have seen tragedy in alcohol related events with my friends, and I do not want to end up being statistic like they were. In March of 2011, 6 of my friends were consuming alcohol and taking Zanax Bars. They weren’t driving, but were so intoxicated, the home caught on fire, and they didn’t wake up in time to get out. All six of my friends died. I’ve seen my friends get arrested and thrown in the back of Police cars for Intoxication. I’ve had a friend fall asleep because she was so drunk and died from crashing her car. The dangers that I have experienced personally go on and on. Having to write this paper has really opened up my eyes to the shocking statistics of teen and alcohol abuse. First, let’s discuss why teens drink alcohol in the first place. Teenagers, like adults, drink alcohol for many different reasons, although some of them are different for teens. Teens are more likely to start experimenting with drinking if they have parents who drink, if they have friends who are also deinking, and if their parents don’t give those clear messages about not drinking outside the house. Also, Alcohol is a powerful drug and changes how you feel. Some of the initial sensations at lower blood alcohol levels are pleasant. It really makes you feel good and lose all the inhibitions you have when you are sober. You will say and do almost anything. It is this sensation that many teens crave. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant. So if you’re tense or uptight, drinking some alcohol will, at least in the beginning, reduce some of that tension and will help you â€Å" chill out â€Å". We as teenagers need to consider talking with an adult you trust or a counselor if drinking is something we really want to do. Drinking, especially heavy drinking(4 or more women, 5 or more men) can significantly increase your risk for alcohol-related problems and health problems even as a teenager beginning to experiment with alcohol. It can cause dependency early on, pushing teens to try other things, and either end up in Juvenile Hall, rehab facilities, or even dead. Significant relationships were found between young people’s drinking behaviors and perceptions of risk and protective factors in the family environment. Parental monitoring was strongly associated with modifying teen behavior. There is a real need for alcohol misuse prevention interventions and classes in the high schools. I am currently a sophomore and have not had any classes or assemblies about the dangers of alcohol in teens. Now, let’s discuss the dangers of teen drinking.. Teens don’t just drink. They drink to excess. As I mentioned before, I have seen teenage boys drink even as much 17-18 beers in a night. More than 7 percent of eighth graders, 16 percent of sophomores and 23 percent of seniors report recent binge drinking ( 5+ drinks on the same occasion). Binge drinking used to mean drinking heavily over several days. Now, though, it means drinking way to much in a short amount of time. Liquor stores, commercials advertising alcohol, all make drinking seem attractive and fun. It is so easy for teens to get caught up in a social scene with lots of peer pressure to drink to fit in. Teens love the feeling of alcohol and the way it makes us â€Å"Bulletproof. † We believe it will make us feel good, but don’t think about getting sick or hung over the next day. It helps to relieve stress, but eventually just causes more. Drinking also makes teens feel older and more free. Statistics show that the majority of current teen drinkers got drunk in the previous month. That includes 50 percent of the high school sophomores who drink and 65 percent of the high school seniors who drink. Underage drinking is linked to injury and risky behavior. We can get alcohol poisoning, which is potentially life threatening. It can cause confusion, vomiting, seizures, and low body temperature. Finally, when I am adult and have children, I will educate them before they come in contact with the temptations of being a teenager. It’s easy to see why using alcohol as a solution to problems, or a way of trying to cope, is trouble. Drinking should never take the place of talking things through and working out difficulties in other ways.

Sacrifice in A Tale of Two Cities Essay -- Charles Dickens

New Wark or New York A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens is a story of great sacrifices being made for the sake of principle. There are many examples of this throughout the book made by many of the characters but some or more evident than others. In Book The First, entitled â€Å"Recalled to Life,† the most obvious sacrifice for the sake of principle was made by Dr. Manette. He is imprisoned for eighteen years in the Bastille, for no apparent reason. Another noticeable sacrifice made for the sake of principle was made in Book The Second, entitled â€Å"The Golden Thread,† also by Dr. Manette. Charles Darnay reveals the truth about himself and about his family history. He tells Dr. Manette his real identity and that he is heir to the Marquis St. Evremonde. In Book The Third, entitled â€Å"The Track of a Storm,† Sydney Carton makes an astounding sacrifice for the sake of principle when he fulfills his promise to Lucie Manette, his true love, that he will one day sacrifice himself for the person whom Lucie loves. In â€Å"Recalled to Life,† Dr. Manette makes a very great sacrifice for the sake of principle. â€Å"All through the cold and restless interval, until dawn, they once more whispered in the ears of Mr. Jarvis Lorry-sitting opposite the buried man who had been dug out, and wondering what subtle powers were for ever lost to him, and what were capable of restoration-the old inquiry: ‘I hope you care to be recalled to life?’ And the old answer: ‘I can’t say.’"(45). Dr. Manette is imprisoned in the French Bastille for eighteen years by the cruel French government and unknown to him those many years of pain and suffering serve as a great sacrifice in the eyes of the Revolutionists. He is recalled to life from the time he served when he meets Lu... ...ille. Another conspicuous sacrifice made for the sake of principle was made in Book The Second, also by Dr. Manette. Darnay revealed the truth about himself and about his family history. He lets Dr. Manette know his true identity and that he is the nephew to the Marquis St. Evremonde. In Book The Third, Sydney Carton makes an astonishing sacrifice for the sake of principle when he fulfills his promise to Lucie Manette, his true love, that he will one day sacrifice himself for the person whom Lucie loves. All of the above sacrifices were made with the intention of keeping morals and principles high in human life. Whether it is your life or your feelings towards someone, we have learned that it is always better to give for the greater cause. Works Cited Dickens, Charles. Hard Times. Ed. Fred Kaplan and Sylvà ©re Monod. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 2001.

Between Subjects Design

Between-subjects Designs Instructions Psychology students need to learn how to look at each factor within a study and the Interaction between those factors. This assignment will assist students In learning how to understand this concept: 1) For this assignment, you will test the following hypotheses: a) Frequent users of Backbone will have a significantly different level of self-esteem than infrequent users of Backbone. I) Definition of Frequent users- spend 2 hours a day on Backbone. II) Definition of Infrequent users- spend less than 2 hours a day on Backbone. ) Module 2: Part I – Survey ) Each team member will access and complete the â€Å"Backbone Survey. † Save the survey results for the next part of this assignment. 3) Module 4: Part II – Data Collection a) Collect data from the surveys of each team member: b) Locate all the answers to the questions specifically about self-esteem: l) Self- esteem Question #s- c) Hold onto the survey results for the next par t of the assignment. 4) Module 6: Final Study a) part Ill -T-Test I) As a team, you will use data you compiled (means from the average scores- self- esteem questions only) from the surveys to calculate a T-test on the two groups: (1)Frequent users of Backbone- separate mean (2) Infrequent users of Backbone. – separate mean b) part – F-Orator l) use the data you compiled from the surveys to calculate an F- ratio on the 4 groups (4 means to calculate): (1) Male- Frequent/lunette-separate means (2) Female- Frequent/lunette separate means [If your group consists of members of the same sex, then use ages to separate the groups: For instance, â€Å"under-30, over-30, etc. â€Å"] c) Part V- Compile the team's final results into a study (750-1,000 words) detailing the steps of the assignment.Include n your study: I) Introduction- Briefly explain the reason for the study. Include the hypothesis and how it was tested. II) Method- briefly explain how the experiment was conduct ed: (1) Participants- How many? What were the relevant characteristics (male/female, ages, etc. )? (2) Instrument- Briefly explain the survey used to compile the data. Ill) Procedure- Were there groups? How was data compiled? How was the data measured? Make sure you clarify the study for the reader. Iv) Results- Record the mean differences on how you scored on self-esteem in these different groups.How 2) Include the F-ratio v) Discussion: Include interpretation of results, ethical concerns, limitations of study, and suggestions for future research. (1) Was the hypothesis supported? (2) What can you generalize from the study? V') References- List all references of literature used for this study. 5) Prepare the Final Study portion of this assignment according to the PAP guidelines found in the PAP Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required. 6) Submit the Final Study assignment as one deliverable to the instructor by the end of Module 8.

Environmental Factors in Colombia Essay

Organizations are not isolated of what happens in the environment outside them, they face uncertainty in dealing with events in the external environment and they have to adapt to new changes regarding customers, government, economic conditions and technology. It is very important for organizations in Colombia to become aware of their environment because assessing it could make them more competitive and allow them to adapt and survive in the market, but the uncertainty Colombia in terms of globalization, technology, knowledge, demand, etc. is making organization to rethink about strategies and new ways to do business and to address all of the factor in the external environment. The factors causing organization complexity in Colombia are addressed by Daft, they are both internal and external: industry, human resources, raw material, markets, international, government, sociocultural, economic and technological factors. For example, in Camacol (Cà ¡mara Colombiana de Construccià ³n) the lack of legal stability threats development opportunities in large cities and scares away national and international investors. It makes necessary that the rules established for projects are maintained and are not changing every day, that’s why head directors in Camacol proposed to the government new ways to manage the permissions and monitor the decisions taken by majors in areas adjacent to Bogotà ¡. (Paà ­s, 2014). This is important for the construction sector because its development brings with it the increase of an important set of activities in industries and related services, contributing in this way to increase employment and to the satisfaction of an important set of needs of the population, in this case, the access to housing services. Nowadays we can not talk about uncertainty avoidance or external environment without talking about globalization, reducing borders and forcing businesses to prepare increasingly for indulging in different markets, ensuring its validity in the market. To achieve this, it is necessary for organizations  to adopt new strategies of growth, market penetration, creation of own responsibilities, coordination and adaptation of the products to various markets according to their needs. Many organizations that have been integrated into international markets have found the need to modify their products or strategies to meet the needs of its customers, because the factors that determine the environment change. For example Juan Valdez, have found the need to deal with government regulations in different countries, and lately with the entrance of a new competitor in Colombia, also they had to change its technology processes to transform coffee to sell it in every store and to make it more efficient and effective, reducing costs; this kind of changes not only help businesses in Colombia but in all countries the organization is in. Also there are International Organizations in Colombia that have adapted their processes to Colombia’s complex environment and have succeeded CEMEX is the tangible proof that the competitiveness in a globalized world is the result of a set of factors, a clear direction, state-of-the-art technology, human capital, good financial management, investments in infrastructure, etc. , and, between them, the actions taken in the aspects of Corporate Social Responsibility have given the company a significant competitive advantage. A really important factor for any organization is the human resource and sociocultural. In Colombia the labor movement that happened in 2013 and remained in 2014 called â€Å"Paro agrario† not only affected the government laws and relationships but also affected organizations that use raw materials produced in the rural sector. This represented a huge challenge for business managers, because of the workers demands. Not addressing this kind of problems with contingency plans would have caused major loss of profit, suppliers and market. The human resource sector is one of the most important factors in the external environment because it concerns employees, suppliers, customers, and mostly any kind of relationship made by the organization. On the other hand the sociocultural sector demands organizations to be more greener and environment-friendly that’s why supermarkets such as Éxito, Jumbo, Carrulla and Olà ­mpica offer recyclable plastic bags, because they know those bags are used by customers as garbage disposals that later on go to sanitary landfills. Also, Coca Cola in Colombia and Postobà ³n have develop new bottles and recyclable packaging that use less plastic and take up less space in the trash, they have also launched campaigns to recycle these containers giving benefits to consumers, with picking machines or donations to NGOs. Main telecommunications operators such as Tigo, Movistar, Claro, Une and ETB have been influenced in a big way by the environmental complexity because they are not only influenced by new demands of customers, they are also influenced and have to be prepared for the unpredicted changes such as: new regulations about communications, contracts and share; competition in services, offers, products; the way business are made with international and national companies in order to have competitive advantages, also by advertising its products nationally; offering new technological services and products in competitive prices. This organizations face tremendous complexity in Colombia, that’s why they keep studying the environment they are in and offering customers new products every time, meaning that in order to them to stay in the market they need to pay more attention to the external environment to run processes internally, this is a good example of a dependence on high uncertainty-com plex environment. Studying external environment is as important as the internal environment because one can change the other, also because there is where the needs are, where the consumers are and what they want to pay to meet their needs. Also in the environment are the obstacles to the company, such as the products of competitors, and the actions to have market share. Also the requirements and restrictions that the company must meet, all of that can influence the processes a company has, because a company is nothing without the interaction with the outside environment, and now is more important to be aware of that thanks to the globalization. Bibliografà ­a Paà ­s. (25 de 08 de 2014). â€Å"Esa incertidumbre no aguanta†: Camacol. Recuperado el 09 de 2014, de Revista Dinero: http://www.dinero.com/pais/articulo/proyecciones-para-sector-construccion-colombiana-2014/200196

New 2018 PSAT Percentiles and Selection Index

New 2018 PSAT Percentiles and Selection Index SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Your PSAT score report will show you a myriad of scores, including your total score, section scores, subscores, percentiles, and Selection Index (SI). This guide will focus on the last two pieces of data: your PSAT score percentiles and Selection Index. Because it’s important to understand how the other scores in your reportrelate to your PSAT percentiles and Selection Index, we’ll start with a quick review of terms. If you’re one of many students or parents looking for directions out ofthe complex mazethat is the PSAT score report, read on to have the path illuminated! What Scores Will You See on Your PSAT Score Report? If you took the PSAT, then you know your score report contains a lot of data. The various scores fall on different scales, and all of them arecalculated from your raw score, or the total number of questions you got right.In other words, your raw score is made up of one point for every correct answer. Note that you don’t get any deductions for wrong or skipped answers. Let’s take a moment to define the various scores you'll see on your PSAT score report to clear up any confusion and revealwhere your percentiles and Selection Index come from. Total score- the sum of your two PSAT section scores, ranging between 320 and 1520. Section scores (2)- a score for Math and a score for Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (EBRW), both between 160 and 760. Test scores (3)- separate scores for Math, Reading, and Writing Language, all between 8 and 38. Cross-test scores (2)- scores to measure your performance on Analysis in History/Social Studies and Analysis in Science questions taken from all three subject areas (Math, Reading, and Writing); these scores range from 8 to 38 (as test scores do) Subscores (7)- scores to measure your performance on PSAT questions in seven specific skill areas: Command of Evidence, Words in Context, Expression of Ideas, Standard English Conventions, Heart of Algebra, Problem Solving Data Analysis, and Passport to Advanced Math; each subscore ranges from 1 to 15 Nationally Representative Percentile- shows how your scores compare with scores of all US students in your grade, including those who typically don'ttake the PSAT User Percentile- shows how your score compares with scores of US students in your grade who typically take the PSAT Selection Index- a scoring system used by the National Merit Scholarship Corporation to determine eligibility for Commended Scholar, Semifinalist, and Finalist As you can see, there are a lot of scores on your PSAT score report. Your section and total scores, along with the percentiles they fall in, are by far the most important for understanding your performance on the test. Your cross-test scores and subscores are useful asfeedback on your strengths and weaknesses as a test taker. You can use this feedback to help you prep for the PSAT again (if you’re a younger student) or to get ready for the SAT if you’re already a junior. Now that we’ve defined these scores, let’s consider the metric that compares your performance with that of other test takers: your PSAT percentiles. Read on so you, too, can magically juggle percentiles in the palms of your hands. What to Know About PSAT Percentiles PSAT percentiles are useful because they compare your exam performance with that of other test takers in your grade. If you scored in the 90th percentile, for example, you scored the same as or higher than 90% of test takers (the remaining 10% scored higher than you). As explained above, the Nationally Representative Percentile takesinto account all students, even those who don’t typically take the PSAT. This percentile includes students who didn't take the test, but who, on the whole, presumably would have scored lower if they had. The Nationally Representative percentile appears to be based on the population of all US students in a certain grade rather than on the population of PSAT test takers in a certain grade.For this post, we’ll focus on User Percentiles,which are calculated based on the performance of students who actually tookthe PSAT. If these two percentiles seem confusing, it’s because they are. In fact, somecritics have questioned the accuracy of both percentiles, suggesting that they're inflated and "presentinga rosier picture† of student PSAT scores to sway students toward the SATand away fromthe ACT. While it’s unclear whether or not these criticisms are warranted, it does appear that the data has the potential to fluctuate in the future. For now, these are the percentile charts that the College Board released in 2018. They show how your total and section PSAT scores get represented by percentiles. Critics of the PSAT might be right to be suspicious. As many people know, 73.6% of statistics are made up on the spot. PSAT Total Scores to Percentiles This chart, based on the College Board's 2018 PSAT scores report,shows the User Percentiles for total PSAT scores.You can also check outour other guides if you want to learn more about PSAT percentiles for sophomores or freshmen. Whether you want to check these percentiles against your own score report or are looking up your results on a PSAT practice test, you can find your percentiles by locating your total PSAT test score. Again, this willrange between 320 and 1520 and is the sum of your two section scores (Math and EBRW). If you scored 650 in Evidence-Based Reading and Writing and 700 in Math, for example, your total PSAT score would be 650 + 700 = 1350. Based on the chart, you can see that a total score of 1350 falls in the 94th percentile. Scroll down to find yours or, conversely, to see what you would need to score to make it into your target percentile. Total Score Percentile Total Score Percentile 1520 99+ 1070 62 1510 99+ 1060 60 1500 99+ 1050 58 1490 99+ 1040 56 1480 99 1030 54 1470 99 1020 52 1460 99 1010 51 1450 98 1000 49 1440 98 990 47 1430 98 980 45 1420 97 970 43 1410 97 960 41 1400 97 950 40 1390 96 940 38 1380 96 930 36 1370 95 920 34 1360 95 910 32 1350 94 900 31 1340 94 890 29 1330 93 880 27 1320 93 870 26 1310 92 860 24 1300 91 850 23 1290 91 840 21 1280 90 830 20 1270 89 820 18 1260 88 810 17 1250 87 800 15 1240 86 790 14 1230 85 780 12 1220 84 770 11 1210 83 760 10 1200 82 750 9 1190 81 740 8 1180 79 730 7 1170 78 720 6 1160 77 710 5 1150 75 700 4 1140 74 690 3 1130 72 680 3 1120 70 670 2 1110 69 660 2 1100 67 650 2 1090 65 590-640 1 1080 63 580 and below 1- Learning any new skill takes hours of dedicated practice. Doing well on the PSAT is no different! PSAT Section Scores to Percentiles While the chart above shows PSAT percentiles represented by total scores, this next one shows the percentiles assigned to section scores. As described above, you’ll get two section scores on the PSAT: one for Math and one for Evidence-Based Reading and Writing. Each score isbetween 160 and 760. Just like in the chart above, you can use the following chart to find your percentiles ortofind out what scores you need to achieve your target percentile on a particular PSAT section. In addition to helping you prep and interpret your PSAT scores, whether on practice tests or the real thing, percentiles can be helpful for estimating your chances of gettingNational Merit distinction. We'll talk more about why this matters in a moment. Section Score EBRW Percentile Math Percentile 760 99+ 99+ 750 99+ 99 740 99 98 730 99 97 720 98 96 710 97 96 700 96 95 690 95 94 680 94 93 670 93 93 660 91 92 650 89 91 640 88 90 630 86 89 620 84 87 610 81 85 600 79 83 590 76 81 580 73 78 570 70 75 560 67 72 550 63 69 540 60 65 530 56 62 520 53 58 510 49 55 500 46 52 490 43 48 480 39 44 470 36 40 460 33 36 450 31 33 440 28 29 430 25 26 420 22 23 410 20 19 400 17 16 390 15 13 380 12 10 370 10 9 360 8 7 350 6 5 340 5 4 330 3 3 320 2 2 310 2 2 300 1 1 290 1 1 280 1 1 270 1- 1 260 1- 1- 250 and below 1- 1- If you're aiming for National Merit, you need to know your Selection Index score. How Do PSAT Percentiles Relate to National Merit? Students who score highly on the PSAT their junior year might qualify for National Merit distinction. The top 3-4% of scorers every year are named Commended Scholars, while the top 1% are named Semifinalists and can potentially go on to become Finalists and scholarship recipients. Your percentiles on your PSAT score report are an estimate rather than an exact prediction of your chances of National Merit. The National Merit Scholarship Corporation actually uses its own scale called a Selection Index (SI) to determine National Merit. The NMSC compares students nationally for Commended Scholar but determines eligibility on a state-by-state basis for Semifinalist. It uses this state-by-state system to ensure there is an even distribution of Semifinalist awards throughout the country. This discussion of National Merit brings us to an important piece of data: your Selection Index. What Is the Selection Index? Your score report will give you your Selection Index (SI) score; you can also calculate this yourself, as you’ll see below. Your Selection Index will look much different from your total PSAT score since it ranges between 48 and 228. To be named National Merit Semifinalist, you’ll need a Selection Index score at or above a certain cutoff. Each state’s cutoff is different (usually students testing in New Jersey; Washington, DC; and abroad have the highest ones) and changes from year to year. Based on reports from students around the country, we've compiled the full list of 2018 cutoffs for each state. If you took the PSAT as a junior, you can check out our National Merit Semifinalist guide to get a sense of whether or not you might qualify. Remember that cutoffs can change from year to year. So where does this Selection Index score between 48 and 228 come from? Read on to find out. Calculating your Selection Index score is easy. All you need is a calculator, a spoon, a Yukon Gold potato, and a dozen European coins. How to Calculate Your Selection Index Score Your Selection Index score is calculated from your PSAT test scores. As you saw in the glossary at the beginning of this guide, you get three test scores: one for Math, one for Reading, and one for Writing and Language. Each test score ranges from 8 to 38. If you take the PSAT/NMSQT, your score report will show you your Selection Index. You can also easily calculate this score yourself by adding your three test scores together and multiplying the sum by 2. The chart below shows how you would calculate your Selection Index score if you earned a 35 in Reading, a 32 in Writing and Language, and a 37 in Math: Section Score Sum x 2 Selection Index Score Reading 35 (35 + 32 + 37) x 2 = 208 Writing and Language 32 Math 37 If you scored in top percentiles and think you might be eligible for National Merit, you can check out our state-by-state cutoffs for the 2018 PSAT. In closing, let’s review what you need to know about the PSAT scoring system, particularly the percentiles and Selection Index. Key Points: Scores on the PSAT The PSAT is scored on a scale from 320 to 1520. Its scale is shifted down from the SAT’s scale, which is 400-1600, to account for the fact that the PSAT is a somewhat easier test. Your Reading and Writing and Language performances are reported together as a single Evidence-Based Reading and Writing score between 160 and 760. Your other section score is Math and also ranges between 160 and 760. Your score report will tell you two percentiles: the Nationally Representative and User percentiles. It is generally thought that the User Percentile is the more accurate and useful of the two,as it's based primarily on students who typically take the PSAT. The charts above show the percentiles represented by your total and section scores on the PSAT. If you’re taking and scoring your own PSAT practice tests, you can use the charts to determine what scores you need to achieve to make it into your target percentile. If you score in a top percentile on the PSAT, then you might be named National Merit Commended Scholar or National Merit Semifinalist. The National Merit Scholarship Corporation typically notifies qualifying students in September. While your PSAT score report might look confusing with all its measures and metrics, the various scores on it can actually be extremelyuseful as feedback for your PSAT and SAT prep. If you take the time to comprehend your PSAT score report or calculate these scores on your own from practice tests, you’ll gain valuable insight into your profileas a test taker. You can use this feedback to shape your prep, whether you’re taking the PSAT again or preparing for the very similar SAT. Whatever the case, it’s a good first step to take stock of your academic strengths and weaknesses and design a personalized study plan that will work for you! What’s Next? Now that you’ve gained some insight into PSAT scores, check out our guide to learn about the SAT scoring system.In it, we break down how the SAT is scored and give you scoring charts so you can score your own practice tests. What should you do after you get your PSAT score report? This in-depth guide discusses some next steps everyone should take after getting their PSAT scores. Are you aiming for top scores on the PSAT?Learn all about the test here, and then download PSAT practice tests to help you study. If you’re aiming for National Merit, check out this guide on how to get a perfect score on the PSAT. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Marcel Duchamps Nude Descending Essay Example

Marcel Duchamps Nude Descending Essay Example Marcel Duchamps Nude Descending Paper Marcel Duchamps Nude Descending Paper Expressionism as a movement in Germany covered many different creative media such as visual art, literature and theatre, as well as its influence on the world of cinema. Its visual style and themes represent in many ways the personal and social conflict felt in Germany at the time, and as expressed by Klinge Klinge (1983, p. 106), to find answers, artists turned inward, to project human emotion through their films. This resulted in a collection of dark, mysterious horror films, the style of which has made a great impact on filmmakers since the period, and right up to the present day. An early expressionist film that embodies most of the characteristics associated with the movement is The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (Wiene, 1920), and I shall be looking at this film in particular detail -with reference to other Expressionist films and those influenced by them to understand further the techniques used in making the film and the meaning behind them. In order to understand the meaning behind the movement, it is vital to consider events previous to the period. From the unification of Germany in 1871, Europe suffered from civil unrest at the balance of powers within the continent, and WW1 (1914-1918) caused devastation and Germany suffered under the Treaty of Versailles (1919), which ended the war. A common theme in German Expressionist film is that of authority, or more specifically, the idea of tyranny (Kraucauer, 1947). In The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, Caligari uses his hypnotic power as a means of control of Cesare, who he makes commit murder. This idea of being under power which cannot be fought against may well be an analogy for Germanys treatment, and in their view, oppression, during the war years. In the end of the film, however, it is made clear that Francis is seemingly delusional, with the tyrannical figure of Caligari triumphing. In writers Hanz Janowitz and Carl Mayers original script, this did not happen, and the story exposed the madness inherent in an obsession with authority (Klinge Klinge, 1983). However, Wiene made the directorial choice to change this ending, so authority triumphed. This message was not followed in other expressionist films, such as Nosferatu (Murnau, 1922), where the films tyrannical antagonist is finally defeated. To add even more to the films ambiguity, a framing device is used the idea of Francis telling the story from inside the asylum (although we only really realise this in retrospect). The device shows audiences that the events seen are simply Francis interpretation, and leaves an uneasy feeling of not being sure what to believe a murderer getting away with his crime, or Francis being simply delusional. This idea of the world being disjointed and confusing is shown within the mise-en-scene of the films, as part of the sets. The sets, designed by three expressionist artists Walter Reimann, Walter Rohrig and Hermann Warm use sharp edges and jagged lines, such as the style of the houses in The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, which are set at angles with sharp corners. These sets are often representative to paintings within the Expressionist movement in visual arts, which feature the same angles and distorted perspective, for example, Marcel Duchamps Nude Descending a Staircase (1912), in which the nude and the staircase are represented abstractly, not in any kind of naturalistic way. These kinds of sets have made clear influence on more recent films, a particular director using the style being Tim Burton. An example of this is in his film Sleepy Hollow (1999); the trees in the forest backdrop are dark and jagged, with pointed ends. In the film, protagonist Crane experiences feelings of madness, and as with Expressionist film, the disjointedness of the sets represent these feelings. Another example of Burtons homage to Expressionist film is the set design on Batman Returns (1992), in which the long shots of Gotham City are reminiscent of those seen in Metropolis (Lang, 1926), with tall, looming buildings that seem oppressive to those below them. The acting in Expressionist cinema also contributes to the overall style of the film. Due to these films being made in the silent era, before the discovery of sound, much of the actors emotion was shown through their over the top expressions and gesture, and they often moved in a non-naturalistic way and attempted angular postures and jerky movement [ ] to reinforce the theme of a society out of kilter (Klinge Klinge, 1983). The representations of people within Expressionist paintings were also distorted, such as in Edward Munchs The Cry (1893), and as with the sets, these representations seemed to have an influence on the characterisation in the films.

Writing Mantras

Writing Mantras    Im not a fan of interviews, which might sound a little self-centered because I have been interviewed many times. But I have to admit that when I see an interview of an author with all the stereotypical questions, I hit delete. I dont know how I managed to remain on this authors interview page long enough to read to the end of it, to the juicy part, but I did. And I immediately thought, My readers need to know this. lucberthelette.com/#!authorelizabeth-gilbert/c1vg0 Elizabeth Gilbert is author of several books, most notably Eat, Pray, Love. The interviewer asked a   few clichà © questions, but luckily Ms. Gilbert answered with genius. Rather than describe the interview, I chose to pull out snippets that I label as mantras. If youve read The Shy Writer Reborn (www.chopeclark.com), you know that I am a believer in mantras to instill willpower. The simplest path seems to be to embrace what you are good at, which is like swimming with the current, rather than against it. to figure out what, indeed, your own life is all about requires a ferocious level of attention to the way you are tuned, and equally ferocious stewardship of the Self once I began writing, it became clear to me: This is not a foreign language; this is my native tongue. You must write the book that you feel is missing from your bookshelf. My suggestion is to focus not on becoming successful, but on becoming great. dont demand that your art supports your life. Instead, make a promise that your life will always support your art. A degree in writing is not what makes you a writer. Writing every day is what makes you a writer. And writing every day is absolutely free. And when asked for a final word, she said, ONWARD. I smiled because mine is MOVE FORWARD. Always has been. Your mission is to live forward, not backward. Make each step new and fresh, not one that re-walks old ground.

Morgan Motor Company and the Key Challenges Essay - 1

Morgan Motor Company and the Key Challenges - Essay Example Regarding this issue, it is noticed by Greve (1998, 59) that change within any modern firm should be considered to be ‘an outcome jointly determined by the motivation to change, opportunity to change, and capability to change’. One of the most difficult tasks when implementing change within a particular organization is to identify the areas of the firm’s operational activity that need to be reviewed and possibly restructured. The above assumption is also supported by Poole (1998, 45) who noticed that ‘when change is needed in an organization it is likely the culture or identity of the organization will be targeted for change; the transformed organization, whether it be minor (first-order change) or major (second-order change), will not be the same as its predecessor’. In other words, change within a particular organization is often related to conditions of work and the skills of employees (possible thought of replacement should be identified in the re levant research). Moreover, other operational weaknesses should be identified at this stage. The responsibility for the identification and the evaluation of the problem belongs to firm’s central strategic management unit (in the specific case of Peter and his son Charles). The current paper examines the advantages and the disadvantages of implementing a plan of change to Morgan Motor. Moreover, the changes already applied to the above firm are going to be examined thoroughly and criticized as of their effectiveness in the firm’s performance especially in the long term. Changes were necessary for Morgan Motor. The production had been limited to a specific number of cars on an annual basis while the systems used for this production could be characterized as inappropriate in terms of the level of production (cars prepared on an annual basis). The time required for the completion of the relevant initiative is also considered as significant. However, the firm’s leaders managed to appropriately improve operational activities in all firm’s sectors implementing the required plans (in terms of the firm’s targets in the long term). It could be stated here that ‘change is a constant in modern working life; no matter how managers and employees struggle to control their lives, change is forced on them, reinforcing the feeling of being a pawn in someone else's game; since change is inevitable, managers must work to give their staff a sense of control over changing situations’ (Rosenberg, 1993, 21). In the case of Morgan Motor, the firm’s leaders managed to face effectively the obstacles appeared during the efforts for the implementation of change policies. In the long term, their initiatives had been proved appropriate for the particular market aligning existed business strategies with the demands of the particular marketplace. Â   Â   Â  

Human Rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Human Rights - Essay Example It has been argued that the interpretation of human rights owes too much to the Western view of rights (Bromley & Smith p 537, 2004) which is capitalist based and framed in thelight of â€Å"power, domination and subjection† (Brown et al., 2004). Other areas call upon definitions which relate to family and religious values in contrast to those of the whole nation state. This concept is also part of human rights in some Asian countries where the individual is less important than the family or religion. In some Muslim countries also, human rights operate separately and equally for both men and women (Prokhovnik p 244, 2004) Some of he most important theories and models which have been developed to account for the interactions between human rights and culture now follow. Although models are useful as a framework for manipulating the variables in postulating or explaining a theory they cannot handle the complexities required for a full understanding; theories give a fuller picture .To cosmopolitans rights are universal, and individuals as well as nation states must be able to enjoy – and distribute – the application of justice in countries outside their own state as they do within it. For cosmopolitans the international scene belongs to the public – all nations – and therefore is capable of functioning as a form of governance in its own right; this leads to the concept of a form of global order with an array of institutions which transcend states. Within this global structure is the UN Security Council.

Newcastle College international strategies and beyond with respect to Essay

Newcastle College international strategies and beyond with respect to India - Essay Example the validity of the hypothesis that the marketing strategy that has been most lucrative in the case of New Castle College in India has been one that is distinct from one that New Castle College generally employs and has been tailored for the Indian consumers. Over time, numerous colleges based in the United Kingdom have established their campuses in the Asian region (Cornuel 2005). Most notable of these ventures have been those that have been established in developing counties such as India where ventures such as these are being welcomed by local and federal governments (Aggarwal 1982). However, these colleges have observed that there is a stark difference between the marketing strategy that they use in the United Kingdom and the one that they should use in India (Trade and Industry Committee, Great Britain Parliament and House of Commons 2006). This difference has been attributed to the trends towards education that are found in the Indian populace. It is for the same reason that this paper shall use the case of the Indian campus of New Castle College and shall highlight the marketing strategy that New Castle College adopted in India in order to gain a better understanding of the same fact. The paper shall take advantage of publications such as Imagining Marketing: Art, Aesthetics, and the Avant-garde by Brown and Patterson, Geography of marketing and commercial activities in India: documentation on research information by Dixit, International Marketing Strategy: Analysis, Development and Implementation by Doole and Lowe, Marketing across cultures in Asia by Gestelanda and Seyk, Marketing library and information services: international perspectives by Gupta and other similar publications. A complete list of readings that will be used in the research can be found in the suggested readings list at the end of this research proposal. The research shall initiate by considering literature that pertains to the marketing of academic institutions in foreign regions

Strengths and Weaknesses of Structural Realism Essay

Strengths and Weaknesses of Structural Realism - Essay Example In midst of such scenario and global order, numbers of variables are drawn as metric of power. These include the economic dependency of others, the military might and strategic influence enactment. The absence of humane sentiment: The fact the world order is established on the principles of military and political might makes the theory the best recipe for present day circumstances. A nation without any stronger military force or any stronger armament unit would stand no chance in the battles and wars enforced. The case of cold war may stand as an example where the military alliances and other aggressive alliances came into existence on the account of the fact that the countries were stronger. A nation with greater say in context of military saying made it more suitable a choice for becoming an ally in the Cold war scenario which had split the world in to two distinct poles. This theory enables the nations considering the fact that the best way to establish a say and have dominance is through military and other facets strengthening. It allows for clear definition and demarcation of the means of possession that are essential. It supports its claims based on the events that took place in the Cold war that lasted for over five decades. This enables equipping oneself to the required level of defense and the subsequent budget that is needed for this purpose. Nationalism is one of the most powerful force that brings the people together. The theory in place brings the people alive through the spirit and concept of nationalism. It brings their patriotic sentiments out of them making for a strong shield against any outside offensive and counter alliance that may be in place at given time period. The theory is crafted in a way that would provide little regard to the sentiments and humane element, rather the order of the day is built along the lines of survival of the fittest and struggle for

Marketing Concepts and Planning-- Apple IPods Assignment

Marketing Concepts and Planning-- Apple IPods - Assignment Example Features and benefits have long been the idea of improving sales and through promotional materials, however in today’s market pricing should be given much more emphasis by making it much more transparent to consumers in a variety of ways. This report identifies these proposed changes. The company’s mission is simple: Apple â€Å"recognizes that by integrating sound environmental health and safety management practices into all aspects of our business, we can offer innovative technological products and services while conserving and enhancing resources for future generations† (Lee, 2008, p.5). The objectives are to improve sales volumes through creative promotion, effective distribution, and to build consumer interest in mass market groups. The strengths of the iPod are in areas of innovation by remaining a step ahead of competition by updating features, memory and other important benefits for consumers. Research and development talent is an internal strength. Fortunately for Apple, competition is considerably weak and this is a major strength for the business! Weaknesses include, though not a fault of Apple, weakened economic conditions both domestically and internationally, posing a potential risk for future iPod (and iPad) sales. Additionally, minimal television advertising, despite the potential cost and time investment, is another weakness in regards to reaching more mass market customers. Threats to the iPod include the sudden resurgence of consumer use of auction websites such as eBay, creating a form of self-competition for budget-minded, mass market buyers as well as failure of retail partners to be more interactive in the sales/promotion process. These are external failures, however they definitely impact sales volume in certain market territories. As identified, segmentation for the iPod begins with identifying specific groups with

Strengths and Weaknesses of Structural Realism Essay

Strengths and Weaknesses of Structural Realism - Essay Example In midst of such scenario and global order, numbers of variables are drawn as metric of power. These include the economic dependency of others, the military might and strategic influence enactment. The absence of humane sentiment: The fact the world order is established on the principles of military and political might makes the theory the best recipe for present day circumstances. A nation without any stronger military force or any stronger armament unit would stand no chance in the battles and wars enforced. The case of cold war may stand as an example where the military alliances and other aggressive alliances came into existence on the account of the fact that the countries were stronger. A nation with greater say in context of military saying made it more suitable a choice for becoming an ally in the Cold war scenario which had split the world in to two distinct poles. This theory enables the nations considering the fact that the best way to establish a say and have dominance is through military and other facets strengthening. It allows for clear definition and demarcation of the means of possession that are essential. It supports its claims based on the events that took place in the Cold war that lasted for over five decades. This enables equipping oneself to the required level of defense and the subsequent budget that is needed for this purpose. Nationalism is one of the most powerful force that brings the people together. The theory in place brings the people alive through the spirit and concept of nationalism. It brings their patriotic sentiments out of them making for a strong shield against any outside offensive and counter alliance that may be in place at given time period. The theory is crafted in a way that would provide little regard to the sentiments and humane element, rather the order of the day is built along the lines of survival of the fittest and struggle for

Mediterranean Diet And Public Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mediterranean Diet And Public Health - Essay Example The diet has been found to reduce cancer and type 2 diabetes; however, the main disadvantage of this diet is its cost, which is very expensive. Human beings for a long time have devised various dietary methods in an attempt at living a healthy life by choosing carefully choosing what type of foods they eat. The Mediterranean diet is an example of such dieting whose primary principles include high consumption of fruits, vegetables among others. Besides these foods, the Mediterranean diet allows for a reasonable consumption of wine and wiry meats while discouraging the consumption of processed meals. Moreover, the Mediterranean way of life advocates for constant physical activity and a social support system while enjoying your meals. There have been growing criticisms regarding the Mediterranean diet with opponents raising questions on its wholesome nutritional values and the costs that come with maintaining it. It is important to note that the Mediterranean diet has been proven a healthy way of life that provides the body with all the essential elements. The Mediterranean diet is a healthy way of eating because it is a nutrit ional tactic that helps the body keep slim, sturdy and active. Sofi et al (2010) in their meta-analysis found that Mediterranean diet been can be directly linked to decreased mortality from all causes particularly cardiovascular disease. The diet is composed of essential mono and polyunsaturated fats, which can reduce the levels of cholesterol in the body, consequently reducing the risks of heart-related diseases. Most importantly, the diet is very low in saturated fats that can increase the levels of cholesterol in the body. However, it is important to note that the Mediterranean diet does not strive to limit the total fat intake but rather encourages the intake of fats and oils that are less harmful to the body such as olive oil that is the major source of fat in the diet.

Police Abuse Essay Example for Free

Police Abuse Essay An officer who uses more force than policy allows is said to have used excessive force and may be guilty of police brutality, the excessive and lawless use of police force. Police officers are often seen as a thin blue line of protection between criminals and law-abiding citizens, but when they use excessive force, they cross the line and become criminals. Police brutality damages the image of law enforcement as well as the justice system. It leads to loss of trust in the policemen, which then creates a gap between them and people in the community. According to the early policing principles imported from 19th century England, it is the lack of centralized control which forms a corruption in America when opportunities of bribery were widespread. Police reforms from the 1930s to the 1950s sought to establish professionalism among police forces by introducing military-like command and higher performance standards. Not everyone agrees with this type of procedure when critics see the March 1991 beating of Rodney King by officers of Los Angeles Police Department which used professional policing. From Rodney King beating in 1991 through the O.J. Simpson trial, the rift has widened the threatening racial discrimination. The reasons for the gap are complex and deep. According to the experts, it is based on the nations painful racial history. The current practice of racial profiling, where skin color is a criterion to pull over a driver is ongoing today. For instance, when Reggie Miller, who is Black, had been ordered to pull over by a Nashville police officer for driving with expired tags, had suffered chronic back problems as a result of the beating. It was about 8:40 p.m. when he was shot on his chest and ordered him to lie face down on the ground. Within couple of minutes the officer, who didnt have a chance to identify himself, called for backup. Suddenly Miller found himself as a cushion using his body from five police officers that had surrounded him. Miller also recalls that the officers gouge his eyes and choke him. This 1992 incident of Miller made him suffer a permanent back problem due to the beating and the shot he encountered. Police officers have no right by any  means to harass a person. Otherwise, they are more considered as criminal because of such inhumane acts. In general, brutality is a form of punishment. Police officers are not supposed to punish but are expected to protect and serve. However, they seemed to expose brutality as punishment when they beat up Adolph Archie in March of 1992. Archie was shot by a police officer and the police officer did not even bother to rush him to the hospital. Instead, they waited in the parking lot until they found out that their injured colleague had died. Then the officers took Archie in the hospital while beating him dead. Unfortunately, Archie only breathe for 12 hours and was diagnosed with two skull fractures, a broken larynx, fractures of the cheekbones, bleeding testicles, teeth had been kicked in, and his entire body was exposed to blunt trauma. Brutality is an inhuman or savage form of cruelty. Police officers need not use too much force to stop a sus pect. Police brutality is an important topic to discuss because it deals with the life of a person, the misconduct of some police officers, the burden it caused and the lesson that everyone should get from it. Police officers must realize they were not given their badge to show that they are ones to be afraid of but to keep the peace and order of the community. They have the right to discipline a suspect which will depend on the physical condition of the latter. Police need not use the force if the suspect is already injured because it may only lead to a more tragic situation. In several cases, people died after being restrained by police officers. Police brutality does not cause anything positive. It only leads to racism, disrespect among people, loss of respect and confidence for the police and it makes citizens feel less safe. Not a single act did brutality explicit an advantage to the people. The possible solution to police brutality is to include in their training new techniques in handling suspects and criminals geared towards the demand for public policies that promote social and racial justice. Furthermore, police officers should receive antiracism and diversity training as a part of their education in police academies. Police officers must learn to conduct themselves in multiethnic and multicultural communities. To fund this  solution, everyone must cooperate by respecting the police officers in our community and the law of United States of America. Without the cooperation of everyone, the prevailing widespread of police brutality will continue to grow. The people should give a serious thought of what they are doing in order to avoid violence. Lets just think about the victims of violence and how thousands of people die every year because of brutality. Lets not make one of our families and our next generations become a victim of these humiliating, devastating and inhumane acts of the police. We, as a nation, need concerted effort in protest for all the victims whose lives have been stolen and sacrifice. The goal must be nothing short of creating a just, humane, peaceful and less violent society. If there is no justice, there will be no peace in the United States. The widespread of police brutality has widened all over the world. The nation must join together to eliminate repression, unjust and abusive treatment by the police in order to have a more peaceful and harmonious nation. To terminate police brutality means calling for justice for our brothers and sisters whose lives have been stolen. In addition, this will give time for the government to open their eyes for the families of those who are unjustly locked down behind prison walls. It will allow balance of justice between the government officials and the people regardless of racial status. Our world would be a better place to live in because it lessens violence, death rate, and increases the confidence and harmony between the police and the community. Moreover, the absence of such brutality will terminate arrest and harassment based on racial origin. Bibliography: Activists Protest Against Police Brutality in LA, MAS magazine, (August 16, 2000), 2 pages. Call for a National Day of Protest to Stop Police Brutality, Repression, and the Criminalization of a Generation, http://www.mojo.calyx.net/~refuse/ndp/071400oct22.html, October 22, 2000. DNC Activists Protest Cop Brutality, MAS magazine, (August 16, 2000), 2 pages. NYPDs Bloody Month of August 1999, http://www.mojo.calyx.net/~refuse/ndp/090699ndpnyc.html, September 6, 1999. Anderson, Kelly, Police Brutality, San Diego California, Kelly Anderson, 1995. Bender, David, Policing the Police, San Diego California, David Bender, 1995. Charles, Nick, Criminally Suspect, SIRS, (September 1995), 4 pages. Conroy, John, Unspeakable Act, Ordinary People, New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 2000. Fitzgerald, Terence, Police in Society, New York, Terence Fitzgerald, 2000. Meeks, Kenneth, Driving While Black, New York, Kenneth Meek, 2000. Nelson, Jill, Police Brutality, New York, Jill Nelson, 2000. Roleff, Tamara, Police Brutality, San Diego California, David Bender, 1999. Steinhorn, Leonard, By the Color of our Skin, New York, Leonard Steinhorn, 1999.

Theories for Philanthropy: History and Background

Theories for Philanthropy: History and Background It is easy to motivate people to attend fundraising events just ask them to turn up and they will, because its the right thing to do. Discuss Introduction Philanthropy is the act of donating money, goods, services, time or effort to support something that is socially beneficial, has a defined objective, and no material reward to the donor. Whilst the majority of people see this as individual charity, the other side to giving without material reward is fundraising and corporate philanthropy. There is a view amongst some organisers of fundraising events that little extra motivation is needed for people to attend they will simply attend because it is the right thing to do. Of course, there are also those who see philanthropy as only occurring where there is some gain outside of money for the donor, especially when it comes to corporate philanthropy. Instead of being about the ‘right’ thing to do, it is more about the perception of doing the ‘right’ thing as a marketing and PR weapon. [1] This essay will examine the roots of philanthropy and look at some of the motivational factors involved. This will involve loo king at marketing techniques, psychological and philosophical theories as to why people give. The aim of this discussion is to provide recommendations to fundraising event managers to help them better promote their events in light of the motivations discovered. The first section will look at the history and background of philanthropy. History and background of philanthropy The earliest forms of philanthropy can be traced back to religion and the ideas of giving and charity within Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The idea of charity in these texts looks at helping the poor and those in need no matter what their faith or situation. This idea of charity set the beginnings for the secular concept of philanthropy. Where charity and philanthropy differ somewhat is that charity has a commitment to the poor and helpless, whereas philanthropy is not so closely linked to the poor.[2] However, religious faith is still a strong motivator behind philanthropy even today because it instils the belief that giving is the ‘right’ thing to do and an important part of faith. In this sense, it could be said that people need no more motivation than their faith to give to fundraising events. However, faith cannot explain all aspects of philanthropy for those who are not religious or where faith is not an important element.[3] Philanthropy developed into a concept in the seventeenth century to do with being kind and humanitarian, which in the 18th and 19th centuries was then to do with being actively involved in humanitarian projects, such as helping the insane or prisoners, and the abolition of slavery. However, it was towards the end of the nineteenth century that philanthropy began to mean the donation of money to causes that would benefit all levels of society and not just the poor. The emphasis of philanthropy has shifted from just helping the poor to helping all areas of society. The government is now seen as the primary carer for those under or around the poverty line, whilst philanthropists look to benefit society as a whole. This of course does not mean that the poor do not or cannot benefit from philanthropy, but that the goal of philanthropy is now wider than helping just those who are poor.[4] The modern version of philanthropy is very much to do with injection of money into causes and raising funds to help develop socially worthwhile projects. Philanthropy is not just about pouring money into something and forgetting about it, but about giving money so that results can be achieved. In fact, if results are not achieved through the donations then generally the donations to that particular project will be reduced. This is a method that wealthy individuals and organizations use to keep projects accountable and to have a measure of social control.[5] This social control may often be in the interests of the philanthropist and so it begs the question as to whether this is the only motivation behind modern philanthropy. If this is the case, then perhaps the idea that motivation to do the right thing is enough is no longer a valid way to promote or achieve fundraising. The next section will look at some competing theories of motivation with regards to philanthropy to see if this q uestion can be answered. Philosophy and models of motivation One idea of motivation behind corporate philanthropy is obviously that it improves the image of an individual or business whilst also providing an opportunity to shape society in a certain way. In modern philanthropy there is no doubt that this is a part of motivation, but in many ways it acts no differently to idea of ‘doing right’. An individual who gives because they believe it is the right thing to do will give in the same way as an individual or organisation who gives because they perceive that others think it is the right thing for them to do. Corporate philanthropy is a part of business culture today, and companies see it as an important marketing tool – to be seen as an ethical, responsible and socially aware company that looks to give back to the community and to society.[6] Also, there is the other side of fundraising that as a company funds are needed to be generated to be given by philanthropists, and so a good company that can benefit society will have a fundraising strategy. Mullin believes that the key to good fundraising is less to do with motivational factors and more to do with detailed strategic planning and advertising of the event is the key to its success.[7] For Mullin, fundraising works very much like any product with a life cycle of fundraising that determines where and when the best opportunities for gaining funding are within each project or event. Wendroff also believes that the key to successful fundraising is attention to detail and planning, and that there is no real need to look into motivational factors as much as there is to employ proper marketing and organization of the event. If this is taken care of then people will donate because of the feeling that this is a worthwhile cause portrayed by the quality of the event.[8] However, there are a number of other theories with regards to the motivation behind fundraising that can help fundraisers. Sargeant and Jay believe that the motivation for philanthropy comes from push and pull factors. People give not just for one reason but for a wide variety of reasons depending on the social climate, empathy and sympathy for a cause, potential for results from the donation and other factors. These push and pull factors are complex and it is believed that more research into why people give and also why they stop giving is important. If this is not undertaken then organisations are in danger of spending too long developing ‘techniques’ to gain funding rather than really knowing why people want to give and how to then present their project.[9] Other theorists see motivation behind giving as being somewhat different. The philosopher Immanuel Kant sees giving as a simply matter of duty, and that the act of philanthropy is an example of duty to our society. Kant doesn’t believe that humanitarian acts or charity are the motivations behind philanthropy, but rather the shaping of duty, society and law are the motivations behind donation. Whilst Kant’s view may appear somewhat cold and does not take into account the human or sympathy aspect of donation, there is evidence that modern philanthropy does on some level work like this. People give money because they feel it is their responsibility to help society with what they have, and this fits in more with a sense of Kantian duty than being charitable.[10] Despite this, Kant’s view is perhaps too narrow and does not take into account the fact that part of giving is certainly to do with personal feelings towards a specific project. Even if someone feels it might be ‘right’ or their duty to donate, they are less likely to do so if there is no personal fit with the project and understanding of its social worth. Perhaps the view of John Stuart Mill is a better explanation of motivation in this case. Mill’s idea is that people donate because they see it as the rational way of making society most efficient. Giving their wealth to help socially beneficial organizations means that they are helping to maximise utility within society. Whilst this theory also seems extremely well thought-out and neat in that it would be great to think that philanthropists and donors need only learn about a project’s benefit to society to give, it again seems that there is more to motivation than this. It also seems unlikely that all donors clearly see this ‘bigger picture’ and that their wealth being offered to others in this way really is helping the overall efficiency and utility of society. If this were the case then philanthropists would all give to very similar and large-scale projects that could benefit as many people as possible – clearly this isn’t the case.[11] Motivational factors and current climate The problem with all of these theories is that they seemingly take a narrow view on motivation to try and pin down why people donate so that fundraisers can develop techniques to increase funding. However, the situation should probably not be looked at in terms of strict individual motivational factors but rather in terms of the current climate of donation and philanthropy on a local, national and global scale. For instance, whilst values in the UK and US on many topics are quite similar, levels of philanthropic donation are much lower in the UK (less than 1% of GDP) than in the US (2% of GDP).[12] Understanding why different national markets vary in level of donation can help fundraisers to understand why people are donating in a particular area or during a particular time period. The US and the UK differ in their giving policies, with US philanthropy very much to do with ‘charity begins at home’, and that self-interest, social appreciation and public statement of giving are important motivational factors. However, in the UK the act of philanthropy is much more to do with the notion of ‘charity for all’ and the sense of duty that doing something socially worthwhile is important. This is done in a more private way and is not so much linked to personal interest or social acceptance. Despite the US and the UK being quite similar they have very different motivations for giving, and this shows how important it is to know the area and culture that the fundraising is being carried out in. This is perhaps more important than knowing individual motivational factors, because these are likely to change depending on the current climate and market conditions. Certainly, since September 11th and the bombings in London the attitude towards giving has changed as people look again to help others and make more of their influence and wealth than before. However, things are changing again as a worldwide economic slump means people are being more cautious, yet demand for funding is increasing as more is needed from individuals to help support the government.[13] In the current climate it looks like corporate donors will move away from corporate giving for PR, and move towards investing in communities to give them a strategic advantage in the future. With companies having less money and all individuals having to reduce their spending, it seems that currently the emphasis for fundraisers should be on showing worth and value to the companies and individuals who want to invest. Companies should also look towards diversifying their fundraising so that they can survive even if philanthropic donations are in decline.[14] Conclusion Although some people will always give money because they believe it is the right thing to do, philanthropy is no longer synonymous with charity. This means that fundraisers have to do more to get the funds they need than simply appeal to a sense of ‘right’. In an effort to find new techniques to generate funds, fundraisers have looked at the individual motivations behind philanthropy. Whilst the theories presented here all have their merits, individual motivations are too complex, unpredictable and diverse to base fundraising tactics upon. Instead, fundraisers should aim to base their tactics on the current economic climate as well as the fundraising climate within their locality or national culture. This is more likely to give general patterns that can be used to strategically improve fundraising. In the current climate, this means diversifying tactics and even looking to earn a certain amount of funds to offset the effects of the economic slump. Fundraisers should also emphasise the benefits to philanthropists with regards to social and corporate results, as anything that will give donors a strategic or social advantage in the future can be a factor in donation. In conclusion, it is no longer enough for fundraisers to rely on people’s sense of charity and humanity to generate funds. Instead, companies should focus on the worth and social benefit of their projects to attract investors in their particular region. Whilst individual motivational factors are complex and need more investigation, local and national trends can be used to develop fundraising strategies. Bibliography Bennett, R., 1997. Corporate philanthropy in the UK: altruistic giving or marketing communications weapon?. Journal of Marketing Communications, 3(2), pp. 87-109. Boney, R., 2008. Corporate donors adjust to economic slump. Philanthropy Journal, September 15th, 2008. Available at: http://www.philanthropyjournal.org/resources/special-reports/corporate-giving/corporate-donors-adjust-economic-slump Boswell, H., 2003. Motivations for Giving and Serving. (Online). Available at: http://www.learningtogive.org/papers/paper33.html (Accessed 15th November 2008). Bremner, R.H., 1996. Giving: Charity and Philanthropy in History. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers. Johnson, G., and Scholes, K., 2002. Exploring Corporate Strategy 6th Edition. Prentice Hall. Matthewson, D.J., 2001. An analysis of John Stuart Mill’s Justification for Redistribution. Prepared for delivery at the 2001 Annual Meeting of the Western Political Science Association, Alexis Park Hotel, Las Vegas Nevada, March 15-17. Available at: http://faculty.fullerton.edu/dmatthewson/Final%20Mill.doc Mullin, R., 1997. Fundraising Strategy. Directory of Social Change. Sargeant, A., and Jay, E., 2004. Fundraising Management: Analysis, Planning and Practice. London: Routledge. Slim, H., 2001. Not Philanthropy But Rights Rights-Based Humanitarianism and the Proper Politicisation of Humanitarian Philosophy in War. Centre for Development and Emergency Practice, Oxford Brookes University. Available at: http://www.odi.org.uk/hpg/confpapers/slim_new.pdf Wendroff, A.L., 2004. Special Events: Proven Strategies for Nonprofit Fundraising. John Wiley and Sons. Wright, K., 2001. Generosity vs. Altruism: Philanthropy and Charity in the United States and United Kingdom. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 12(4), pp. 399-416. Footnotes [1] Bennett, 1997, pp. 87-91 [2] Bremner, 1996, p. xii [3] Boswell, 2003. [4] Bremner, 1996, pp. xii-xiii [5] Boswell, 2003. [6] Johnson and Scholes, 2002, pp. 35-37 [7] Mullin, 1997, pp. 2-8 [8] Wendroff, 2004, pp. 195-198 [9] Sargeant and Jay, 2004, pp. 111-113. [10] Slim, 2001, pp. 2-5 [11] Matthewson, 2001. [12] Wright, 2001, pp. 399-400 [13] Boswell, 2003 [14] Boney, 2008

Society Exposed in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World Essay -- Aldous Hux

Society Exposed in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World One may think that the society in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World is a gross representation of the future, but perhaps our society isn’t that much different. In his foreword to the novel Brave New World, Aldous Huxley envisioned this statement when he wrote: "To make them love it is the task assigned, in present-day totalitarian states, to ministries of propaganda...." Thus, through hypnopaedic teaching (brainwashing), mandatory attendance to community gatherings, and the use of drugs to control emotions, Huxley bitterly satirized the society in which we live. The way the fascist and totalitarian regimes of the past used mass propaganda techniques to â€Å"brainwash† their people was very similar to the way Huxley described the hypnopaedic teachings in his novel. He also thought, however, that the present-day totalitarian states' methods were still "crude and unscientific." For example, in the novel the different classes had been brainwashed since birth to believe that they all contributed equally to society. Therefore, the people wouldn't try to think for themselves because they had never been trained to think anything differently. In addition, they didn't have any knowledge of a society that they could compare themselves to. In our society, many great lessons have been learned from the mistakes of rulers in the past. This is revealed when the Director said, "History is bunk." In our society, the dictators attempted to g...

Comparisim of Sanitation Facilities Within Informal Settlements

COMPARISON OF LOW COST SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES PROVIDED TO INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS Mthunzi Rubuluza (Fill your name in under â€Å"Prepare, Properties, Doc Properties, Advanced†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and update this field) Student Number 200732536 A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the BTech Degree in Civil Engineering† Cape Town 23 September 2011 Declaration I, Mthunzi Rubuluza declare that this research dissertation is my own unaided work. It is being submitted for the BTech Degree at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town.It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other University. _______________________________________________ (Signature) Signed in Cape Town this _____________ day of ______________________ 2011 Abstract The influx of migrants to cities is placing a huge burden to infrastructure delivery in the Western Cape. This burden leads to the need for shelter and that in turn means that land is invaded illegally. The population now creates informal settlements. The rise of informal settlements leads to the lack of basic infrastructure such as water and sanitation.The environmental impact increases like pollution and that increases human health and gives rise to air-bone disease. As a result people tend to use open fields to defecate, illegal dumping, discharge of untreated waste water into wrong streams. The full range of technical options for providing adequate basic sanitation is still not widely known nor are the characteristics of the different options well understood. In particular, there is little appreciation of the long-term financial, environmental and institutional implications of operating and maintaining the various sanitation systems.As a result, in many cases communities and local governments are choosing technical options that, in the long term, are unaffordable and/or unsustainable. C hallenges arise from the wide range of options available and the differing environments and conditions to which each is suited. On-site sanitation is the main form of excreta disposal in most sub-Saharan African cities and will remain the most appropriate level of service for the urban poor in the medium term. Despite heavy public investment in sewerage systems in most primary and some secondary cities, typically only 10-15% of the urban population benefit from access to the sewer network.About 80% of the urban population depends on on-site facilities such as septic tanks and pit latrines which, unlike sewers, are usually the responsibility of households. Acknowledgements I would like to humbly acknowledge everybody who supported me with prayers and encouragement My supervisor, Mr. C. Muanda, thank you for your mentorship and guidance The group members for the support they gave me when hope was gone. My friends who opened up their house for me to become a study area My Family, thank you for your guidance and teachings My dear wife, I love you, thank you for being there for me, supporting me andMostly to my God, thank you Father for giving me strength every day Table of Contents Page Declarationii Abstractiii Acknowledgementsiv Table of Contentsv List of Figuresviii List of Tablesix List of Symbolsx Terms and conceptsxi Chapter 1Introduction1 1. 1Background and Motivation1 1. 2Research problem1 1. 3Research Question1 1. 4Objectives and outcomes2 1. 5Significance2 1. 6Delineation2 1. 7Assumptions2 1. 8Methodology2 1. 9Organisation of dissertation3 Chapter 2Literature review and theory4 2. 1Introduction4 2. 2Purpose of Sanitation Technologies4 2. 2. 1Planning Principles for Sanitation Facilities4 . 3Selection of Appropriate Sanitation Technologies6 2. 3. 1Low cost sanitation technology6 2. 3. 2Institutional technologies for sanitation6 2. 4Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities7 2. 4. 1Types of Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities7 2. 4. 2Wet system7 2. 5Operatio nal Requirements8 2. 5. 1Dry system8 2. 6Implementation Challenges in South Africa8 2. 6. 1Implementation Challenges at Provincial level9 2. 6. 2Implementation Challenges at City level9 2. 6. 3Implementation challenges within community and household level9 2. 7Types of Sanitation Facilities10 2. 7. 1Improved sanitation facilities10 . 7. 2Unimproved sanitation facilities10 2. 7. 3Unimproved sanitation (bucket system)10 2. 7. 4Improved sanitation (Septic tank)10 2. 8On-site sanitation11 2. 9Off-site sanitation11 2. 10Sanitation Guidelines for End-user11 2. 11Planning and Design for Sanitation by Local Authorities12 2. 11. 1Implementation process during planning12 2. 12Sanitation Provision Policy12 2. 13Costs13 2. 13. 1Cost on various levels13 2. 14Conclusion13 2. 15References15 Chapter 3Research methodology16 3. 1Research design16 3. 2Research methodology16 3. 2. 1Data16 3. 2. 2Data Collection16 3. 2. 3Research Equipment17 . 3Methodology17 3. 3. 1Objective 1 – To investigate av ailable sanitation technologies provided to informal settlement from operational, design, maintenance and cost. 17 3. 3. 2Objective 218 3. 3. 3Objective 3 – Selection of the suitable option18 3. 4Semi Structured Interviews19 Chapter 4Discussion20 4. 1Types of Sanitation Technologies20 4. 1. 1Dry toilets20 4. 1. 2MobiSan (Mobile Sanitation)21 4. 1. 3Conservancy tank21 4. 1. 4VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit)22 4. 2On-site Sanitation22 4. 2. 1Pour flush slabs22 4. 2. 2Communal or shared technologies23 4. 2. 3Septic Tank24 4. 3Design24 4. Manufactures Cost25 4. 4. 1MobiSan toilets25 4. 4. 2Pre-cast toilets25 4. 5Photographs25 Figure 4. 1 Cluster of communal toilets26 4. 6STATS SA26 4. 6. 1Population census 200126 Chapter 5Discussion28 5. 1Sanitation Technology Options28 5. 2Operation and Maintenance29 5. 3Selection of an Appropriate Technology30 5. 3. 1Key issues raised for selection appropriate technology30 5. 4Sanitation Provision Approach31 5. 4. 1Supply driven sanitation31 5. 4. 2Demand driven sanitation31 5. 5Performance of these Sanitation Facilities31 There is not enough space due to the density of the settlements. 40 5. Guidelines and Policy42 5. 6. 1Strategy for Sanitation Services to Informal Settlements42 5. 6. 2Costing Guideline for Sanitation Facilities42 5. 7Basic Sanitation Policy Principles44 1. Sanitation must respond to the demands of communities and should link to improved hygiene awareness. For people to benefit from sanitation improvements, everybody must understand the link between their own health, good hygiene and toilet facilities. 44 2. Communities must be fully involved in projects. DWAF is only the regulator. Citizens have rights but also responsibilities in taking charge of their own health. 4 3. Sanitation must be provided in conjunction with water supply and other municipal services. 44 4. Sanitation is more than just toilets; it must be accompanied by environmental and health education. 44 5. Access to basic sanitation is a huma n right. 44 6. Local government has the constitutional responsibility to provide access to sanitation services. 44 7. Scarce public funds must be prioritised to help those most at risk. 44 8. Limited national funds should be fairly distributed throughout the country. 44 9. Water has an economic value and must be protected through sanitation. 44 10.Polluters must pay to clean up the water and the environment they have polluted. 44 11. Sanitation must be financially sustainable. 44 12. The environment must be protected when sanitation systems are set up and run. 44 5. 7. 1What will the Basic Household Policy Achieve? 44 CHAPTER 6 Recommendation and Conclusion45 References47 Appendices48 Appendix A. Questionnaire for users48 List of Figures Page Body Figure 2. 1 Sample Figure CaptionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2. 2 [Replace this text with your own caption – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change figure numbering or caption style]Error!Bookmar k not defined. Figure 2. 3 [Replace this text with your own caption – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change figure numbering or caption style]Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2. 4 Replace this text with your own caption – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change figure numbering or caption style – these are Blue Hills –don’t put them or Blue Sky stuff in your dissertation. (Name, 2007)Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 3. 1 Sample Figure CaptionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure 4. 1 Sample Figure CaptionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure 4. 2Sample figure and figure caption (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 4. 3 Sample figure and figure caption. Make sure figure is big enough to read easily – not like this one! (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Appendices Figure A. 1 Sample appendix figure caption48 Figure A. 2 Sample appendix figure caption48 Figure B. 1 Sa mple appendix figure captionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure B. 2 Sample appendix figure captionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure C. 1 Sample appendix figure caption49 Figure C. 2 Sample appendix figure captionError! Bookmark not defined. Figure D. 1 Sample appendix figure caption49Figure D. 2 Sample appendix figure caption49 Figure D. 3 Sample appendix figure caption49 List of Tables Page Body Table 4. 1Replace this text and table with your own – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change table numbering or caption styleError! Bookmark not defined. Table 4. 2 Sample Table (note use of repeated header as table split across page – only split if it can’t be avoided) (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 4. 3Replace this text and table with your own – don't forget to cite reference if appropriate – don't change table numbering or caption style (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined.Appendices Table A. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Table A. 2 Another appendix table example48 Table A. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)48 Table A. 4 Another appendix table example48 Table B. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Table B. 2 Another appendix table exampleError! Bookmark not defined. Table B. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)Error! Bookmark not defined. Table B. 4 Another appendix table exampleError! Bookmark not defined. Table C. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)Error!Bookmark not defined. Table C. 2 Another appendix table example49 Table C. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table C. 4 Another appendix table example49 Table D. 1 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table D. 2 Another appendix table example49 Table D. 3 Example Appendix table caption (Name, year)49 Table D. 4 Another appendix table example49 List of Symbols Constants ab| Distance between mid-ch ord and elastic axis(mm)| | B| Airfoil half-chord(mm)| | C| Non-dimensional distance between airfoil mid-chord and flap hinge line(-)| | U| Free stream velocity(m/s)| | W| Flexure width(mm)| |X| Distance along span(mm)| | x? | Non-dimensional distance between airfoil pitch axis and airfoil cg(-)| | x? | Non-dimensional distance between flap hinge axis and flap cg(-)| | | | | Greek letters ?| Pitch angle (rad)| | ?| Flap angle (rad)| | | Commanded flap angle (rad)| | ?| Tensile stress (MPa)| | ?| Shear stress (MPa)| | ?| Flutter frequency in (rad/s)| | | | | Subscripts/superscripts A| Aerodynamic| | H| Related to plunge degree of freedom| | ?| Related to pitch degree of freedom| | ?| Related to flap degree of freedom| | S| Structural| | W| Wing| | T| Flutter frequency in (rad/s)| | | | | Terms and conceptsVIP| Ventilated Improvement Pit| UDS| Urine Diversion System| Eco San| Ecological Sanitation| MCSF| Mobile Community Sanitation Facility| MO| Municipal Officer| IS| Informal Settle ment| MobiSan| Mobile Sanitation| AB| Ablution Block| Introduction The main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. In order to be sustainable a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally appropriate, but it should also protect the environment and the natural resources.When improving an existing and/or designing a new sanitation system, sustainability criteria related to the following aspects should be considered, health, includes the risk of exposure to pathogens and hazardous substances that could affect public health at all points of the sanitation system from the toilet via the collection and treatment system to the point of reuse or disposal. This literature review covers types of sanitation, characteristics of sanitation, sanitation provision policy, criteria for selection of sanitation, conclusion. Backgroun d and MotivationThe influx of migrants to cities is placing a huge burden to infrastructure delivery in the Western Cape. This burden leads to the need for shelter and that in turn means that land is invaded illegally. The population now creates informal settlements. The rise of informal settlements leads to the lack of basic infrastructure such as water and sanitation. The environmental impact increases like pollution and that increases human health and gives rise to air-bone disease. As a result people tend to use open fields to defecate, illegal dumping, discharge of untreated waste water into wrong streams.Informal settlements by their nature are quite densely populated and access through the settlement is quite hard. Basic services are larking due to the fact there are no structures that govern the raise of settlements and the need to deliver basic sanitation services increases. There is a huge need to analyse which technology functions within the limits experienced in informal settlements. Research problem The influx of migrants from rural area impoverished and densely populated areas in South Africa towards prosperous regions is creating immense pressures on the existing infrastructure.The conditions of life to informal settlements tend to be poor, with low mobility, and difficult access to health, education, recreation and sanitation. Informal settlements are created without planning and basic infrastructure. Due to the large number of sanitation technologies available and dynamic of these informal settlements, the choice of suitable and sustainable sanitation technology is of utmost importance. Currently, sanitation services provided are not accepted by settlers. Where it is supplied, it is vandalised or misused.This results in unnecessary pressure on decision makers to provide adequate sanitation and loss of investment. Research Question Which is the most practical low cost sanitation technology that can be provided for informal settlements in the We stern Cape? Objectives and outcomes The aim of this work is to investigate the existing sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements in the Western Cape. To investigate available sanitation technologies provided in informal settlement (Cape Flats) technology by outlying, (advantages & disadvantages) from operational, design, maintenance and cost perspective.To classify the types of sanitation according to the characteristics; (dry or wet sanitation; individual or communal). To select the most suitable sanitation options. Recommend the most suitable option. A questioner will be used to find view points of the community within informal settlements. Operational costs and Structural costs per unit Significance This study intends to provide a Better Understanding of sanitation facilities within the Western Cape within informal settlements and to compare the cost implications of such facilities. DelineationThis study will focus only on the sanitation facilities within informal settlements in the Western Cape. The research will compare sanitation facilities provided for highly serviced areas within the Western Cape and the design for formal settlements will be mentioned. Assumptions The expected results of the study are as follow: †¢An overview of sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements †¢Outline key criteria used for selecting the area for the technology †¢Provide a cost effective sanitation technology for informal settlements MethodologyThere will be three (3) informal settlements around the Western Cape that will be selected based on the type of sanitation provided. (Kuyasa, New Crossroad and Nyanga). Field visits will be conducted to look at each sanitation type provided for the people of that particular informal settlement. Visual assessment will used as a way of assessing the facilities at selected case study sites. The assessment will be done with the following: -Design -Operation -Maintenance operations & cost effec tiveness -Interview with a Water & Sanitation official -Views of usersOrganisation of dissertation Here you must describe briefly how the dissertation unfolds. Don’t just list the chapter headings – say a little about each one. Introduce the chapters in the order in which they appear and give an overview of the main points considered in each, except for your introduction (Chapter 1) of which this is the last section i. e. it is reasonable to assume this introduction has just been read. Simply state what is covered in each chapter and in what order, to reveal the logic and structure of the dissertation. Do not give any proofs, arguments or results here.Complete this section last to ensure it describes the dissertation accurately. Literature review and theory This chapter is about the comparison of low cost sanitation technologies provided to informal settlements Introduction The main objective of a sanitation system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment and breaking the cycle of disease. In order to be sustainable a sanitation system has to be not only economically viable, socially acceptable and technically and institutionally appropriate, but it should also protect the natural resources and the environment.When improving an existing or designing a new sanitation system, sustainable aspects should be considered. Institutional appropriateness, sanitation technologies should be managed at the lowest appropriate level, such as municipalities. The household is a major factor in sustaining human health and the environment. Beneficiary communities from the provision of sanitation technologies, or from improvements to existing sanitation technologies, must be partners in the planning, implementation and, where appropriate, operation and maintenance of these technologies or improvements.Of course, sanitation planning cannot be done in a wholly decentralized way: there has to be a coherent city-wide approach to sanitation , but the planning process has to take into account the views of the intended beneficiaries and recognise that the sanitation solutions for very poor, poor and non-poor households are likely to be very different. Affordable sanitation technologies must be affordable for the households using them. In the Western Cape in particular consideration must be given to the affordability of sanitation technologies for poor and very poor households.Purpose of Sanitation Technologies Background The prime purpose of a sanitation system is to break the disease cycle caused by the bacteria in human excreta. To do so, the system has to combat exposure to infection through all the stages from the generation of excreta to their final disposal or reuse. It is important to emphasise again that human behaviour is crucial and fostering behavioural change is a key component of sanitation system planning. In this chapter, though, we are concerned with the functional elements of the system.While individual components will vary considerably with local circumstances and will differ from community to community, the division into elements creates flexibility and choice in developing appropriate solutions. Planning Principles for Sanitation Facilities There are a few principles that lead to beneficial changes for the community and the city as a whole. Below are the six (6) principles for affective strategic planning: 1. Respond on sound finance Service provision should respond to what the potential user wants and willing to pay for. 2. Focus on sound financesIntended users’ willingness to pay for sanitation systems will not be possible for expansion for facilities required. 3. Develop incentives for good practice Individuals and organisations act in a way that ensures the on-going availability of functioning sanitation services need to be incentives for good practice. 4. Involve stakeholders in appropriate ways Groups, individuals and organisation with an interest in some particular subject, in this case sanitation become stakeholders. All stakeholders need to be involved in developing policy context for sanitation acting as intermediaries between service user and service providers. . Take a wide view of sanitation Stakeholders should look beyond local solutions to narrowly defined problems and recognise the links between different sanitation services. Excreta disposal, solid waste management and drainage are interrelated and the impact of improvements in one will be reduced if they are carried out without regard to the others. 6. Take management steps towards intermediate objectives This principle is derived from the incremental approach to the development and implementation of strategies identified, when considering steps of improving set objectives.ELEMENTS TO BE CONSIRDED FOR SANITATION PURPOSES Five elements which need to be considered separately are as follows: †¢ The toilet – there is a wide range of latrines, water closets, urine-diversion toilets, etc. , that may be considered, depending on local circumstances. †¢ The collection system – septic tanks, pits, vaults, drums, may be appropriate in different environments. †¢ Transportation – large or small sewer systems, motorised, mechanical or manual haulage may need to be considered. Treatment – systems vary from sophisticated wastewater treatment plants and sludge digestion to simple composting systems and soil filtration. †¢ Use of sanitation products – urine, composted excreta and biogas are all important resources. If all five (5) elements for sanitation are adhered too then, Health, which is one of the aspects which include the risk of exposure to hazardous substances and pathogens that could affect public health at all points of the sanitation system from the toilet via the collection and treatment system to the point of reuse or disposal.Aspects such as hygiene, nutrition and improvement of livelihood achieved by the ap plication of a certain sanitation system, as well as downstream effects needs to be prioritized. Selection of Appropriate Sanitation Technologies The selection of appropriate sanitation technologies within informal settlements either locally (SA) or internationally, should be considered. . The physical environment and technical feasibility in which it can be installed (sanitation facility) for example; consideration has to be given for (altitude, ground slopes, soils, hydrogeology, housing density, liability to flooding and local climate.The selection must also be compatible both with local socio-cultural practices and preferences and with local socio-economic conditions, with the ability to pay for the sanitation arrangement selected and also willingness to pay for services rendered. Any selected low cost sanitation for any given community has to comply with the six (6) principles for sustainable sanitation. Low cost sanitation technology Sanitation is divided into two broad groups : on site and off site systems.The technologies are further divided into three (3) reuse categories: centralized reuse, intermittent reuse and decentralized reuse and these leads to different sets of sanitation solutions. Household or local community level is Decentralized reuse (a house block). Natural drainage basins within an urban area are Centralized reuse level (town, city), wastewater collection is required followed by wastewater treatment. Pit latrines, pour-flush toilets and septic tanks are all intermittent reuse which refers to on-site systems. Conventional sewerage is not covered as it is too expensive for informal settlements (IWA, 2004).Service delivery in a recent inventory indicates that most of the informal settlements are severely lagging behind in sanitation coverage. Government’s current approach is to aim to supply informal settlements with toilets to be shared within five (5) households. Most of the toilets are locked and their maintenance relies on the users. In the Western Cape especially in the Cape Flats area the types of toilets that are mostly used are chemical (Nyanga) and bucket system (New cross) as shared facilities while VIP and UDS are considered as individual facilities.The options mentioned are not always available or suitable for the informal settlements due to the nature of the settlements. These services are considered as emergency services but however remain with the communities for a long period of time (Mel’s et al, 2009). Institutional technologies for sanitation Institutional technologies for sanitation within South African government structures need to incorporate accountability. During the planning phase all sanitation technologies are prone to mismanagement (including sanitation selection).An assessment for the comparison of sanitation technology needs to include, who is responsible for what and the likelihood that these responsibilities can and will be effectively discharged over the appropriate tim eframes (short, medium and long term commitments). A non-prescriptive professional attitude and in depth local knowledge is required for assessment purposes (Mara et al, 2001). Comparison of the two arrangements is vital because they deal with people and government entities on how to handle sanitation. The CoCT plays a critical role in identifying the need for sanitation in each community. Mobile Communal Sanitation FacilitiesDue to the ever increasing need for free land and lack of space in our urban areas, alternative technologies in order to meet the sanitation demand and respond to the communities need to be made available. Temporary sanitation facilities such as the Mobile Communal Sanitation Facility (MCSF) have been introduced recently in areas where sanitation is to take place (Muanda, 2010). Types of Mobile Communal Sanitation Facilities Mobile Communal Sanitation Facility (MCSF) varies in terms of their design, operational and use requirements. MCSF can be classified accor ding to their operational requirements.In practice the common types that are found are either dry (not requiring water) and wet (requiring water). A system that uses both scenarios has been identified as an improvement solution dealing with various situations. Wet system This type of system requires water for its operation. There are several types of such systems that are being used throughout the world and in Africa such as the DMT (dignified mobile toilet). There are solar powered toilets, sewer connected mobile toilet. Mostly in South Africa the most commonly used system is the Kayaloo and Mobisan (Parkison et al, 2008). Dry systemThis type of sanitation system does not require water for its operation. There are a few in South Africa such as the Mobile Pit toilet. In the international arena the following system for dry systems technologies include the wheel toilet (Burkina Faso), composting mobile toilet (France), tricycle toilet (India and Sri Lanka) {Pickford, 1995}. Combined s ystem This type of system is a dual system that can be used as dry or wet sanitation; it can operate without the availability of water or sewer. In the international arena, the NMT (Nepal Mobile Toilet) is the commonly used system under this category (Parkison et al, 2008).South African perception of MCSF The perception of users of mobile sanitation facilities are context based. The most preferred type of sanitation in South Africa is the individual full waterborne flush toilet. Communities within informal settlements are demanding that this type of sanitation should be provided to them at any cost regardless of the type of topography, shelter or the status of the land occupied. MCSF are seen by communities that the level of service is closer to that off the full flush toilet despite the communal status of the facility and communities are comfortable using it.Communities believe that this type of sanitation provides dignity and privacy compared to other types of sanitation in the ar eas. The slow pace of delivery and the long waiting for the provision of the individual sanitation has changed people’s perception recently. Most of the communities feel that the type of technology brought for a temporary basis has turned up to be a permanent solution (Grootboom, 2010). Operational Requirements City of Cape Town (CoCT) for example most of the settlements (75%) are located on land that is owned by the municipality and a large share which is (22%) is located in private lands.Consent from the owner has to be obtained by the Water Services Department in order to deliver services on site. Permission by many owners is not given due the fact that communities will make their temporally settlement a permanent one. A major constraint for sanitation service provision is the high density of settlements. Dry system The operation of this system does not require water for its operation and this is how the dry system is defined. Dry mobile sanitation system requires a locati on where the facility needs to be installed and the disposal point or discharging excreta when the box is full at the bottom of the system for cleaning purposes (Scandura & Sobsey,1997). 2. 5. 2 Wet system The wet system for mobile sanitation requires water and sewer in order to make the system operational. A toilet bowl is connected under this sanitation system using a pipe linking to the sewer or septic tank. The system depends on water and cannot function if water is not available. In cases where there is no sewer line, the wastewater is pumped out and taken to a disposal site (Dorrigton, 2000). 2. 5. Combined system The combined system was designed to overcome the unavailability of water and the effects that can happen to the operation of such a system. It combines both systems and can be operated without water and with water (Parkison et al, 2008). Implementation Challenges in South Africa Communities in needy areas are waiting for the implementation of sanitation technology th at will provide dignified sanitation to them. The success for the implementation should be designed in such that all the parameters of the technology are not compromised.In the past the focus was mainly on the technology of the sanitation facility, and recently the attention has shifted to the implementation methods of sanitation technologies. Implementation means the process of introduction of sanitation in communities, not necessary the design, but the development process of sanitation. Introduction of the strategy and approach towards the community is vita (Classen, 2003). Professionals in this field feel that the implementation plan should have the environment as the first priority, then after the technical aspects to meet he human societal needs, and finally the economic requirements with these communities. It has become clear from, human societal needs are important and technology must help achieve this basic needs (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation Challenges at Provincial lev el The role of the provincial government needs to be clarified in the funding of urban infrastructure investments and the planning and the delivery of sanitation services is of utmost importance. A key challenge is the lack of capacity for sanitation promotion and progress monitoring.Evasion of funds that are exclusively allocated to sanitation is affecting service provision (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation Challenges at City level Key challenges at municipal levels are related to the following issues: The lack of mechanisms bearing in mind the range of organizations that have a stake in sanitation for inter-agency collaboration on planning and service delivery. Not all municipalities at present accept that there is a problem with excreta disposal. For the achievements of national sanitation goals there is a lack of incentives and accountability.There is a shortage of capacity within the municipality in infrastructure development, planning, service delivery and sanitation promotion . Poorly understood and complicated mechanisms for accessing and allocating capital funds. The private sectors service delivery and maintenance in the safe removal, treatment and disposal of septic tank is under-developed and unregulated. Existing infrastructure is poorly maintained and operated (Grootboom, 2010). Implementation challenges within the community and household level Communities need to play a role as the intended usurers in the implementation of sanitation facilities.The challenge occur at this level, when limited appreciation of the need for safe disposal of wastewater. In most cases those that occupy land illegally are excluded from municipal projects and planning processes thus posing threats to the provision or implementation of sanitation services (Classen, 2003). For any technology to be embraced by the community they have to be involved from the inception phase, design phase and during the construction phase so that they can embrace the services being rendered b y government institutions.CoCT and Local government face a huge back log of housing projects that can play a role in elevating sanitation stumbling blocks within informal settlements. Implementation challenges within community and household level Communities need to play a role as the intended usurers in the implementation of sanitation facilities. The challenge occur at this level, when limited appreciation of the need for safe disposal of wastewater. In most cases those that occupy land illegally are excluded from municipal projects and planning processes thus posing threats to the provision or implementation of sanitation services (Classen, 2003).For any technology to be embraced by the community they have to be involved from the inception phase, design phase and during the construction phase so that they can embrace the services being rendered by government institutions. CoCT and Local government face a huge back log of housing projects that can play a role in elevating sanitati on stumbling blocks within informal settlements. Types of Sanitation Facilities The type of sanitation facilities listed below can be found throughout the Western Cape.The type of technology used for a particular settlement depends on the following elements which determine the final product being utilised i. e. topography, population, water resource and availability of the facility. Improved sanitation facilities This are facilities which are not shared or public, for example; flush or pour flush, piped system, pit latrine, septic tank, ventilated improved pit latrine with slab and compositing toilet (Franceys et. al 1992). Unimproved sanitation facilitiesExcreta is flushed to the street, yard or plot, open sewer, a ditch, a drainage way or other location pit latrine without slab or open pit, bucket, hanging toilet or hanging latrine and no facilities or bush or field (Lemer, 1996). Unimproved sanitation (bucket system) Design and function In the South African context the bucket is always black, pvc and is about 38 cm in diameter at the top and 30 cm at the bottom and has adequate handles for lifting and carrying. The collection chamber is situated below the squatting seat.All the chambers are open at the rear of the latrine, into the service lane used for collection. The collection chamber must be fly and animal proof. The chamber needs to be ventilated by means of a pipe vent carried to roof level of the superstructure (Pickford, 1995). Collection and conveyance of buckets On a weekly basis collection are done and gets replaced with a disinfected bucket. Buckets that are emptied into a tank and are returned immediately the practice should be condemned unreservedly.The time of the collection should be done in partnership with the community affected. Buckets are emptied at the disposal sites, thoroughly washed, and disinfected with phenol or creosol type of disinfectant before being stores away and re-used (Pickford, 1995). Improved sanitation (Septic tank) Th e most satisfactory unit all water-carried systems and the most useful system of disposal of excreta and other liquid wastes from individual dwellings, small groups of houses, or institutions located in informal settlements out of reach of sewer systems.The septic tank consists of a covered settling tank into which the raw sewage is led by the building sewer. Inside the septic tank the processes constitute the primary treatment of raw sewage; and those which occur in the disposal field form the secondary treatment. All liquids wastes, including those from bathrooms and kitchens, may be sent to the septic tank without endangering its normal operation. Contrary to popular belief, recent research has shown that sullage waste can and should be discharged into septic tanks (Lemer, 1996).On-site sanitation As it was mentioned before that there are two types of sanitation systems in this instance the On-site sanitation systems is generally designed and must operate in such a way excreta is deposited into a man-made container, usually a subsurface excavation or tank. The common trend to all forms of on-site sanitation is that decomposition process and settlement is performed on-site. This is the most low-cost sanitation system as it has various types of pit latrines. They can be either wet or dry systems.Due to the shortage of space and availability of land in informal settlements this system operates the best under these conditions (Lemer, 1996). Off-site sanitation This type of sanitation system transports sewage through sewer pipes using water. An off-site sanitation system only transport faecal matter away from households and does not include on-site decomposition to a significant degree. This type of system depends largely on the topography of the area and the planning around the system. There must be enough land and space before such a system is created, which is difficult in informal settlements.The cost of such a system is quite high (Scandura and Sobsey, 1997 ). The availability of funds and the topography play an important role in the decision making on what type of technology communities should have within informal settlements. Sanitation Guidelines for End-user Greater user acceptance is achieved through user involvement and influence in selection, implementation and management including operation of the technology is borne out of understanding and experience that people best understand their own development situation, social, cultural and religious practices.If the communities are involved it leads to greater ownership and empowerment and would translate into greater acceptance of responsibility and hence the technology. It is within the human nature to be more receptive and supportive when asked about one’s opinion as opposed to being dictated or told to what’s is best for oneself (Mara, 1996). Note the following reasons why services fail: †¢Ineffective planning, monitoring, evaluation and interventions †¢Poo r technical capacity to implement †¢Hygiene and inappropriate use practises. †¢Low user acceptance and satisfaction †¢Inadequate community involvement Low priority and †¢Lack of responsibilities between municipal, community and household Finally- it is of great importance not to move too fast from temporary programmes to full-scale programmes, the community need to receive the programme so that it is not rejected. Planning and Design for Sanitation by Local Authorities Sanitation technology is adequately dependent on the appropriate design specification is borne out of the understanding that the correct design standards and locally appropriate materials would enhance the durability of the technology in a given local context.Planning plays a pivotal role as it is used as an important factor to determine whether appropriate and sustainable sanitation technologies are achieved. A planning model that integrates everyone is ideal (WSP, 2007) that takes place within th e Integrated Development Planning (IDP) process (DWAF, 2001). The various sanitation options are demonstrated through the IDP process. A top-down to bottom-up approach for a planning model should drive the demand and should be entirely people centred, best achieved through a collective model (Tilley, 2008). Implementation process during planningA methodology for the provision of sanitation is necessary to establish sanitation for low-income settlements and to support and equip personal responsible for provision of sanitation to low-income settlements (Muanda, 2010). In the planning process specific emphasis for adequate functioning of the technology is placed on the environmental aspect, that local environmental and geological condition are considered and that the technology does not adversely impact on the environment (DWAF, undated). The recurring points that need to be systemised are as follows; Human rights and socio-cultural needs should be considered †¢Affordability for t he user †¢Sanitation should be demand driven †¢Stakeholder participation †¢Support, regulation and implementation within the community participation framework should be considered. †¢Provision for construction should be to locals. †¢Community linkage at all levels During the implementation place it is important to include health and hygiene training as to ensure improved health and hygiene practice (Still et. al, 2009). What happens in the case where a local authority has provided such training?Over time many new comers arrive into the settlement (as is the case in many informal settlements)? The only solution to the question here is to train trainers in the community who will be responsible for constantly creating awareness in their community (DWAF, 2009). Sanitation Provision Policy South Africa despite being a democratic country for more than a decade, with a sound constitution and sound policies there is still high levels of poverty and inequalities and budgetary realignments designed to address the legacies of the past and steady economic growth (DWAF, undated).Some policies have been relatively successful but still South Africa has the second highest in equality in the world behind Brazil (UNICEF, 2000). The fact is that by 1996 not that much had been achieved by way of sanitation provision in any of the provinces (DBSA, 2009). Sanitation has become a high priority on the development agenda, and not just with the Water Supply and Sanitation (WSS) sector specialist. The opportunities for financial support are better than ever, the political commitment is there, so as to deliver sustainable sanitation services to more than two billion people by 2015.A further 1,089 million rural and 1,085 million urban dwellers will need to gain access in the coming 15 years if the 2015 target is to be achieved. The first democratic government since 1994 has put in place policies that address the apartheid health legacy of racial discrimination. Du ring this process, several key-pro equity policies were inherited in the public sector. In the South African context the policy not only influences the approach to the financing and management of projects but also their technical features (WHO, 1999). CostsSocio-cultural landscapes and local variations in the physical landscape necessitate local input into the selection process and any preconceived ideas should be put on hold. Discussions with the targeted community about local capital and operation and maintenance costs have to be determined in each case that will enable the community and local authorities to come to a decision based on affordability. It is important that agencies reporting comparative costs on a wholly transparent basis, so that only the â€Å"true† basic costs of sanitation arrangement are presented to the communities (DBSA, 2009).Cost on various levels There are five (5) principles for various levels. †¢All costs relating to the provision of sanitati on service should be included †¢A distinction should be made between capital and operating costs †¢A clear distinction has to be made between internal and bulk services †¢Costs services must be expressed as current replacement at capacity cost. †¢Costs to be reduced per area or site. Cost sanitation technologies can also be influenced through the natural features such as vegetation, terrain and water availability and climatic conditions generally within the settlements.Conclusion The sanitation approach includes the perception, feel and practices involved in satisfying the primal need to defecate and urinate. Societal sanitation approach determines the nature of sanitation which serves as the crucial link between an unhealthy and healthy living environment. The term sanitation includes the safe disposal of domestic waste. For the purposes of this research, the structure seeks to understand the appropriate sanitation and identify a sanitation structure that is cos t effective and will be sustainable in informal settlements.Sanitation facilities are used to improve human dignity regardless of the area and the circumstances of the people. In this study we have looked at the process that needs to be followed in order to have sanitation technologies that safe guard the people. In informal settlements due to the nature of their existence and the lack of formal services, the communities usually do not take ownership of these facilities. The onus is upon government to train people about the importance of sanitation. The study focussed mostly on technologies that are used internationally and locally.The comparison of this technologies will be based on cost, structural intact and the maintenance therefore of the technology. References Rockstrom, Johan et al. : Sustainable Pathways to attain the Millennium Development Goals Assessing the Key Role of Water, Energy and Sanitation, Stockholm Environmental Institute, 2005. WHO & UNICEF: Meeting the MDG Dri nking Water and Sanitation Target – The urban and rural challenge. WSSCC/Sandec (2000). The Bellagio Statement on Sustainable Sanitation. Jenssen et al. , 2004 P. D. Jenssen, J. Heeb, E. Huba-Mang, K. Gnanakan, S. W. Warner, K. Refsgaard, Stenstorm Thor-Axel, B.Guterstam and K. W. Alsen, Ecological sanitation and reuse of wastewater, ecosan, a thinkpiece on ecological sanitation (2004). HDR (Human Development Report), 2006 HDR (Human Development Report), Beyond Scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis, United Nations Development Programme, New York (2006). Dorrington RE, Bradshaw D, Budlender D. HIV/AIDS Profile of the Provinces of South Africa—Indicators for 2002. Cape Town, South Africa: Centre for Actuarial Research, Medical Research Council and the Actuarial Society of South Africa, University of Cape Town; 2002. Rogerson, C. (1993); South African policy lessons.Urban Forum Vol. 4; No. 2. Housing Conditions, sanitation status and associated health risks in selected subsidized low- cost housing settlements in Cape Town, South Africa. Govender, T. Jo M. Barnes. Joubert A, Stewart T (2003). Evaluation of water supply augmentation and water demand management options for the City of Cape Town, journal of Multi-criteria Decision Analysis. Lemanski, C (2009). Augmented informality; South Africans backyard dwellings as a by-product of formal housing policies. WHO, (2006). Surveillance, planning, financing. Available online. City of Cape Town, Department of housing, (2004).Breaking new ground, comprehensive plan for housing delivery. Available online. Research methodology This chapter provides a comprehensive description of the comparison methods used to analyse sanitation technologies in informal settlements (IS). It outlines an overview of the research design, data collection, research equipment and research methodology used in order to meet the study objectives. Research design This section of the study is made up of the following: * Li terature review which compromises of literature, a body review, a framework, a body of knowledge with regards to sanitation technologies. Data collection which compromise methods used to collect required data * Data Analysis and Presentation in the light of the literature review to determine the trends used for sanitation technologies for IS. Research methodology This study intends to provide a better understanding of sanitation facilities within the Western Cape within informal settlements and to compare the cost implications of such facilities. Data The data required in order to archive the study objectives includes the type of sanitation technology for IS and the cost in relation to sanitation technology.Data acquired was based on the following: †¢Type of sanitation †¢Cost (Operational & Maintenance) †¢Cost (Infrastructure) †¢Advantages and Disadvantages of On-site sanitation †¢Advantages and Disadvantages of Off-site sanitation Data Collection In order t o collect data two methods are used (Two interviews & Site visits). * Site visits on selected IS in order to assess the type of sanitation technology being used. The site visits where done by conducting visual assessment in three informal settlements with the Metro. Data was collected by comparing the types of technology that is being used within each settlement.A questionnaire template was used to gather user’s views and opinions on the technologies offered by the municipality. * An interview with the Municipal Officer (MO) to confirm or validate data/technology on site and the cost of the technology. The interview was set out to ascertain the magnitude and the need of sanitation facilities within informal settlements which is done by the municipality. Operational and maintenance cost of the technology being used was collected for comparison purposes. * An interview with manufactures of sanitation technologies was conducted in order to confirm cost per unit.All the manufactu res that where contacted where primary manufactures that the municipality procures all their sanitation technologies. Rocla was one of the manufactures that was interviewed about their precast toilets. Rocla has two sets of precast toilets one with sanitation facilities and one without sanitation facilities. A comparison of the two technologies has been tabled in Chapter 4. Santec was also interviewed about their Mobile toilets which comprised two sets of toilets (dry & wet). A comparison of the two technologies is outlined in Chapter 4.Research Equipment The following equipment was used for this study: * Pen; this tool was used to capture raw data from site. * Laptop; ; the laptop is used to store all data collected and is also used to make tables to present all the research work into a document * Digital Camera; the digital camera was used to take pictures on site and during interviews. * Mobile phone; mobile phones where used as a means of communication amongst all stakeholders i nvolved. * Fax Machine; was used to send and also receive data from stakeholders without email facilities and scans. Landline; the tool was used for communication between office hours and is the most affordable means of communication. Methodology Objective 1 – To investigate available sanitation technologies provided to informal settlement from operational, design, maintenance and cost. The objective was implemented by conducting of site visits, during which visual assessments where used to compile the name of the technology, specific technical aspects such as design and the condition of the technologies on site. Below is a list of design technologies within informal settlements that where visited. * Porta potiies * Chemical toilets Container toilets * Conservancy tanks * Pour flush toilets * Pit latrines * Urine diversion toilets * MobiSan toilets * Environmental loo Objective 2 * To classify the types of sanitation according to the characteristics (dry or wet sanitation; in dividual or communal). Classification of the technology was done by identifying individual and communal sanitation technologies. * * Dry sanitation | * Wet sanitation| * A dry toilet differs from a flush toilet (water closet) in that it does not need water. Excreta are collected directly beneath the seat in a shallow pit, container, chamber, such as the bucket system.Confusion must cleared between the systems especially latrine system which is constructed on a deep pit. Dry toilets ranges include a squatting plate or pedestal, with a smooth finished surface and is often utilised in limited area to minimise soiling. | * These are the conventional full flush system with sewers and waste water treatment plants, full flush systems with septic tank and small bore sewers, and the full flush systems with shallow sewerage. With septic tanks will significantly reduce operating costs, while the third system shallow sewers will significantly reduce the capital costs.The advantages of this grou p of toilets are that they operate as full flush toilets, can accommodate grey water disposal, and are well suited to densely populated areas where the plot sizes are insufficient to treat and drain household wastes. | * Objective 3 – Selection of the suitable option The suitable option was based on the advantages and disadvantages on the interview and the cost of the technology by the manufacture. The selected option is also based on the manufacture’s specification which used on site by the municipality and the budget allocated to the MO for that particular region.Advantages of On-site sanitation| Disadvantages of On-site sanitation| The system must be simple to construct, operate and maintain| This system is not suitable for substrata with hard rock and high water table conditions. | Installation should be less expensive and maintenance the same| The is a high possibility of pathogens contaminating the groundwater| Pollution of water surface should be eliminated| In highly densely populated urban areas such as informal settlements crucial groundwater resources can get contaminated. | Semi Structured InterviewsSemi structured interviews were conducted to collect data from users to obtain the users views on sanitation technologies and the type of service the municipality is rendering. Users were asked questions on sanitation situations, technology selection, performance of facilities, appropriateness of the technologies, operational and maintenance of the facilities. A total of twelve (12) interviews were conducted. See (Appendix A) for the questionnaire template. Table 1 shows the distribution of the interviews conducted. Area| No. of interviews| Gugulethu| 4| Khayelitsha| 4| Nyanga| 4|TOTAL| 12| Table 1Distribution of interviews The questionnaires were administered on site with the users of the selected informal settlements. Administration of questionnaires was conducted in Xhosa since most of the users were comfortable speaking the language. D ue to the lack of finding suitable donor’s to fund our survey only small sample was administered that actually uses the facilities. Discussion This section of study reflects the visual assessment that was conducted on site. A questioner was used to ascertain the level of service from the end user on the three (3) identified sites.A comparison of technologies that is being offered in informal settlements by the municipality is also reflected. The physical structure of the technologies being offered by manufactures to municipalities. Operational and maintenance cost implication from the manufacture and that cost is later transferred or felt by the municipality. Types of Sanitation Technologies Technology| Settlement Name| Suburb Name| Porta potiies| KTC| Nyanga| Chemical toilets| KTC| Nyanga| Conservancy toilets| Monwabisi Park| Khayelitsha| Pour flush toilets| Barcelona| Gugulethu|Pit Latrines| Monwabisi Park | Khayelitsha| MobiSan toilets. | KTC| Nyanga| Dry toilets A dry toi let differs from a flush toilet (water closet) in that it does not need water. Excreta are collected directly beneath the seat in a shallow pit, container, chamber, such as the bucket system. Confusion must cleared between the systems especially latrine system which is constructed on a deep pit. Dry toilets ranges include a squatting plate or pedestal, with a smooth finished surface and is often utilised in limited area to minimise soiling.ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| No water required for flushing| Capital: R2000 – R 3500. 00 which can increase where soils not suited to drainage. | The toilet has to be cleaned without using much water. | Easy to construct with local material| Operating: R150 – R300 per annum where subsoil drainage is available| Collected excreta has to be carefully handled, excreta contains pathogens| May be used indoors| | Excreta have to be removed frequently to avoid smells, especially if the toilets are indoors| MobiSan (Mobile Sanitation)Mobi San (Mobile Sanitation) system in many ways has many advantages over existing dry systems. Below is a list of those advantages; MobiSan Advantages| MobiSan Disadvantages| The MobiSan system is an independent and self-contained system and has been proven that the system does not affect ground water at all. Faeces and urine are stored separately in the MobiSan. Urine is channelled away and the faeces fall into a ventilated chamber. The construction of the system is such that a handle on the outside of the cabin allows the solid waste to be stirred.The steering speeds up the drying of the excrement. The excrement is then channelled into a second component where this drying process is repeated again. The end product is dried up, it is pathogen-free manure that can be safely used to fertilise local vegetable gardens within the communities in informal settlements. This system lends itself as a more aesthetic and hygienic option for residents in informal settlements. | The technology provi ded is prone to vandalism and becomes full within a short period. Operating costs are very high. | Conservancy tank ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES|Waste is flushed into the tank where it is contained in isolation from the surrounding environment. | Capital: R2000 – R 5000. 00 depending on top structure and tank volume| Becomes full if domestic wastewater levels are high. | Easy to construct with local material| Operating: R 550. 00 per household and emptying cost estimated at R181 per tank. The tank is emptied on average 3 times per year| Emptying cost over the lifespan of the technology is quite high. | VIP (Ventilated Improved Pit) ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| Applicable in rock terrain| Capital: R2500 – R 4500. 0Depending on householder input. | . Collected excreta has to be carefully handled, excreta contains pathogens| Does not require deep excavation| Operating: R35 – R135 every 2 years. | Prone to smells. | On-site Sanitation On-site sanitation has c ertain requirements, which need to be investigated before adopting the system. †¢The system must have adequate space for locating toilets and leach pits. †¢The designated site must have porous subsoil to absorb liquid content of excreta and †¢The groundwater depth should be greater than 1,5m from ground level.ADVANTAGES OF On-site sanitation| DISADVANTAGES OF On-site sanitation| The system must be simple to construct, operate and maintain| This system is not suitable for substrata with hard rock and high water table conditions. | Installation should be less expensive and maintenance the same| The is a high possibility of pathogens contaminating the groundwater| Pollution of water surface should be eliminated| In highly densely populated urban areas such as informal settlements crucial groundwater resources can get contaminated. | Pour flush slabs Pour flush slabs (squatting pans) are designed with a U-shaped facility which s partly filled with water under slab. The de sign which is U overcomes problems such as flies, mosquitoes’ and odour by serving as a water seal. After usage, excreta are manually flushed by pouring water into the pan with a scoop. The amount is about 1 to 4 litres of water which is required for each flush. The amount of water depends mainly on the design of the facility and the U-trap. This type of toilet can be made from plastic and ceramic, or from galvanized sheet metal . ADVANTAGES| COST| DISADVANTAGES| High level of convenience for the user| Capital: R 2000- R 3500 which can increase where soils are not well suited to drainage. Blockages occur a lot within these systems| The design reduces the need to handle fresh excreta. | Operating: R 150 – R 300 per annum where subsoil drainage is available| Requires small amounts of water for flushing| Can be used indoors| | Limited emptying service. | Communal or shared technologies In areas where there is not enough space, the sharing of latrines between several famil ies is a useful solution. The common situation is where groups of households or small communal areas have latrines to be used by all the families.The ownership of the latrines generally belongs to one of the houses, the owner of all the houses, or else ownership is shared between the households. The costs of pit emptying and other repairs is often included in the rent, causing problems when the owner does not live there, or the residents must collaborate to clean the latrine and collect money to get it emptied when necessary. This is a very widespread practice. Communal of blocks of latrines are located in a public area,